Throughout most of his reign, he was associated with unrivalled extravagance, tyranny, debauchery and murder – to the extent that Roman citizens allegedly considered him to be the Antichrist. Here are 10 fascinating facts about Rome’s iconic and abominable leader.

1. He became Emperor at the age of 17

As Nero was older than Emperor Claudius’ natural son, Britannicus, he now had a superb claim to the imperial purple. When Claudius was almost certainly poisoned by his wife Agrippina in 54 AD, her young son declared the dish of mushrooms that had done the deed to be “the food of the gods”.

By the time Claudius died, Britannicus was still younger than 14, the minimum legal age to rule, and therefore his step-brother, the 17-year-old Nero, took the throne.

The day before Britannicus was due to come of age, he met a very suspicious death after drinking wine prepared for him at his celebratory banquet, leaving Nero – and his mother – in undisputed control of the world’s greatest empire.

2. He murdered his mother

Having poisoned two different husbands to reach her exalted position, Agrippina was unwilling to relinquish the hold that she had over her son, and was even portrayed face-to-face with him in his early coins. Soon Nero grew tired of his mother’s interference. While her influence dwindled she tried desperately to maintain control over proceedings and her son’s decision making.

As a result of her opposition to Nero’s affair with Poppaea Sabina, the Emperor eventually decided to murder his mother. Inviting her to Baiae, he had her set forth on the Bay of Naples in a boat designed to sink, but she swam ashore. Eventually she was murdered by a loyal freedman (ex-slave) in 59 AD on Nero’s orders at her country house.

3. …and two of his wives

Nero’s marriages to both Claudia Octavia and later Poppaea Sabina both ended in their subsequent murders. Claudia Octavia was perhaps the best suitor for Nero, described as “an aristocratic and virtuous wife” by Tacitus, yet Nero quickly grew bored and began to resent the Empress. After several attempts to strangle her, Nero claimed that Octavia was barren, using this as an excuse to divorce her and marry Poppaea Sabina twelve days later.

Unfortunately, Octavia was not off the hook. Her banishment at the hands of Nero and Poppaea was resented in Rome, infuriating the capricious Emperor even more. Hearing the news that a rumour of her reinstatement was met with widespread approval, he effectively signed her death warrant. Octavia’s veins were opened and she suffocated in a hot vapour bath. Her head was then chopped off and sent to Poppaea.

Poppaea brings the head of Octavia to Nero. Image Credit: CC

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Giovanni Muzzioli / Civic Museum of Modena / CC BY-SA 3.0

Despite Nero’s eight year long marriage to Claudia Octavia, the Roman empress had never bore child, and so when Nero’s mistress Poppaea Sabina became pregnant, he had used this opportunity to divorce his first wife and marry Sabina. Poppaea bore Nero’s only daughter, Claudia Augusta, in 63 AD (although she would die only four months later).

Her strong and ruthless nature was seen as a good match for Nero, yet it did not take long before the two fatally clashed.

After a fierce argument over how much time Nero was spending at the races, the intemperate Emperor violently kicked Poppaea in the abdomen whilst she was pregant with his second child – she died as a result in 65 AD. Nero went into a long period of mourning, and gave Sabina a state funeral.

4. He was immensely popular during his early reign

Despite his violent reputation, Nero had an uncanny knack for knowing what actions would endear him to the Roman public. After putting on several public musical performances, cutting taxes and even persuading the King of Parthia to come to Rome and take part in a lavish ceremony, he soon became the darling of the crowds.

Nero was so popular, in fact, that after his death there were three separate attempts by impostors over thirty years to gather support by assuming his appearance – one of which was so successful that it almost lead to a civil war. This immense popularity amongst the common people of the empire, however, only made the educated classes distrust him even more.

Nero is said to have been obsessed with his own popularity and far more impressed by the theatrical traditions of the Greeks than Roman austerity – something that was considered simultaneously scandalous by his senators yet superb by the inhabitants of the eastern part of the empire.

5. He was accused of orchestrating the Great Fire of Rome

In 64 AD, the Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 to 19 July. The fire started on the slope of the Aventine overlooking the Circus Maximus and ravaged the city for over six days.

The Great Fire of Rome, 64 AD. Image Credit: Public Domain

It was noted that Nero was (conveniently) not present in Rome at the time, and most contemporary writers, including Pliny the Elder, Suetonius and Cassius Dio held Nero responsible for the fire. Tacitus, the main ancient source for information about the fire, is the only surviving account which does not blame Nero for starting the fire; although he says he is “unsure”.

Although it is likely that claims stating Nero was playing the fiddle whilst the city of Rome burned are a literary construct of Flavian propaganda, Nero’s absence left an extremely bitter taste in the public’s mouth. Sensing this frustration and aggravation, Nero looked to use the Christian faith as a scapegoat.

6. He instigated the persecution of Christians

With the supposed intention of diverting attention away from the rumours that he had instigated the Great Fire, Nero ordered that Christians should be rounded up and killed. He blamed them for starting the fire and in the subsequent purge, they were torn apart by dogs and others burnt alive as human torches.

“Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as nightly illumination when daylight had expired.” – Tacitus

Over the next hundred years or so, Christians were sporadically persecuted. It was not until the mid-third century that emperors initiated intensive persecutions.

7. He built a ‘Golden House’

Nero certainly took advantage of the devastation of the city, building a lavish private palace on part of the site of the fire. It was to be known as the Domus Aurea or ‘Golden Palace’ and was said, at the entranceway, to have included a 120-foot-long (37 meters) column that contained a statue of him.

Statue of a muse in the newly reopened Domus Aurea. Image Credit: CC

The palace was nearly completed before Nero’s death in 68 AD, a remarkably short time for such an enormous project. Unfortunately little has survived of the incredible architectural feat because the expropriations involved in its building were deeply resented. Nero’s successors hastened to put large parts of the palace to public use or to construct other buildings on the land.

8. He castrated and married his former slave

In 67 AD, Nero ordered the castration of Sporus, a former slave boy. He then married him, which noted historian Cassius Dio claims was because Sporus bore an uncanny resemblance to Nero’s dead former wife Poppaea Sabina. Other suggest Nero used his marriage to Sporus to assuage the guilt he felt for kicking his former pregnant wife to death.

9. He competed in Rome’s Olympic Games

Following the death of his mother, Nero became deeply involved in his artistic and aesthetic passions. At first, he sang and performed on the lyre in private events but later began performing in public to improve his popularity. He strived to assume every kind of role and trained as an athlete for public games which he ordered to be held every five years.

As a competitor in the games, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. He also competed as an actor and singer. Although he faltered in the competitions, being the emperor he won nevertheless and then he paraded in Rome the crowns he had won.

10. Citizens worried he would return to life as the Antichrist

Revolts against Nero in 67 and 68 AD sparked a series of civil wars, which for a time threatened the survival of the Roman Empire. Nero was followed by Galba who was to be first emperor in the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors. The death of Nero brought an end to the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which had ruled the Roman Empire from the time of its formation under Augustus in 27 BC.


As Nero died, he proclaimed “what an artist dies with me” in a piece of arrogant melodrama which has come to symbolise the worst and most ludicrous excesses of his 13-year reign. In the end, Nero was his own worst enemy, as his contempt of the Empire’s traditions and ruling classes gave rise to rebellions that ended the line of the Caesars.

Due to the troubled time after his death, Nero might have initially been missed but with time his legacy suffered and he is mostly portrayed as an insane ruler and a tyrant. Such was the fear of his persecutions that there was a legend for hundreds of years among Christians that Nero was not dead and would somehow return as Antichrist.

A mad despot

In 64 AD, Rome was the imperial capital of an immense empire, stuffed full of the spoils and ornaments of victory and with Nero, the last of the descendants of Julius Caesar, on the throne.

A mad despot in the classic tradition of Roman emperors, Nero was in the midst of planning the building of an immense new palace in the city when, on that hot July night, a devastating fire broke out in a shop selling flammable goods.

The breeze coming off the river Tiber carried the fire through the city quickly and, soon, much of lower Rome was ablaze.

These mainly civilian parts of the city were an unplanned rabbit warren of hastily-constructed apartment blocks and narrow winding streets, and there were no open spaces to halt the fire’s spread – the wide temple complexes and impressive marble buildings that the city was famous for all being located on the central hills, where the rich and powerful lived.

Only four of Rome’s 17 districts were unaffected when the fire was finally quenched after six days, and the fields outside the city became home to hundreds of thousands of refugees.

Was Nero to blame?

For millennia, the fire has been blamed on Nero. Historians have claimed that the timing was a little too coincidental with his desire to clear space for a new palace, and the enduring legend of him watching the blaze and playing the lyre from a place of safety on the hills of Rome has become iconic.

Did Nero really play the lyre as he watched Rome burn as the legend would have us believe?

Recently, though, this account has finally begun to be questioned. Tacitus, one of ancient Rome’s most famous and reliable historians, claimed that the emperor was not even in the city at the time, and that when he returned he was committed and energetic in organising accommodation and relief for the refugees.

This would certainly help explain Nero’s great and enduring popularity amongst the ordinary people of the empire – for all that he was detested and feared by the ruling elites.

More evidence also supports this idea. Aside from Tacitus’ claims, the fire started a considerable distance from where Nero wanted his palace to be built and it actually damaged the emperor’s existing palace, from which he tried to salvage expensive art and decorations.

The night of 17-18 July was also one of a very full moon, making it a poor choice for arsonists. Sadly, it seems that the legend of Nero fiddling as Rome burned is probably just that – a legend.

One thing that is certain, however, is that the Great Fire of 64 had important and even era-defining consequences. When Nero looked for a scapegoat, his eyes came to rest on the new and distrusted secretive sect of the Christians.

Nero’s resulting persecution of the Christians put them on the pages of mainstream history for the first time and the subsequent suffering of thousands of Christian martyrs thrust the new religion into a spotlight that saw it gain millions more devotees over the following centuries.

In the year 66 the Roman province of Judaea revolted against Roman rule. Long after the Romans defeated the Jewish armies and captured Jerusalem, the fortress of Masada held out as the last rebel stronghold against the Roman legions.

The origins of Masada Fortress

Used as a defensive position since the early 1st century BC, Masada’s unique potential was exploited by Herod the Great, a Judaean king allied to Rome. Herod is well known for his appearance in the Gospel of Matthew, but his actions are better understood through the Jewish historian Josephus and Herod’s archaeological legacy.

In the 30s BC Herod built a huge fortified palace on the tabletop-mountain. In places Masada’s cliffs are over 1,300 feet high, which Herod knew would make it an ideal place of refuge. He added to the plateau’s natural defences a 13 foot wall around its perimeter, reinforced with towers and gatehouses.

Herod’s new fortress could only be reached by a narrow path, the ‘Snake Trail’, which wound up the eastern side of the cliffs. This path was so narrow that two men could not climb it abreast. With its high walls and narrow entrance, Masada was impregnable to traditional military attacks.

Herod’s palace at Masada. Image Credit: Andrew Shiva / CC.

Herod had discovered the perfect place from which to rule Judaea and to entertain important Roman guests. In addition to the fortifications, a luxury three-tiered palace complex, Roman baths, and even a swimming pool were added for Herod and Roman ambassadors to enjoy.

The First Jewish-Roman War

Six decades after Herod’s death, Judaea had become a part of the Roman empire. After a series of abuses by the Emperor Nero‘s governors, the Jewish people rose up against their oppressors in the year 66 AD.

The war between the Jews and the Romans was long and bitter. Initially, the Jews were successful, but soon a Roman general called Vespasian was despatched to take command of the legions. After Vespasian won a series of victories, Masada’s famous historian Josephus (then a commander of the Jewish rebels) was captured by the Romans.

While in captivity, Josephus met with his captor Vespasian. The historian correctly predicted that Vespasian would one day become emperor of Rome. This chance encounter enabled Josephus to reside in Vespasian’s house in Rome after the war, where he wrote his history of the First Jewish War using both his own knowledge and that of the Roman generals.

Vespasian soon left his son, Titus, to finish the campaign against the Jews and began preparing to seize power in Rome. In 70 Titus finally captured the Jewish capital of Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. The backbone of the Jewish resistance was now broken.

The Sicarii’s last stand

In 66, at the start of the war, an extremist group of Jewish rebels called the Sicarii had captured Masada from its Roman garrison by tricking the soldiers into allowing them inside the fortress. The Sicarii were fundamentalists, and were even known to attack moderate Jews who did not agree with their tactics.

By the year 70 AD Jerusalem was under Roman occupation and Masada became the final stronghold of Jewish resistance. The Sicarii were only 960 strong, and included the small force’s elderly relatives, wives and children.

During their years in the fortress the Sicarii turned Herod’s huge palace complex into a unique community. The remains of the building which they transformed into a synagogue have been discovered, and they dug out Herod’s swimming pool to allow many people to bathe at one time.

Roman fort at the foot of Masada. Image Credit: Sarah Murray / CC.

They had no shortage of supplies as the Roman garrison had kept the fortress well-stocked with food and water. To this day one can stand in the massive underground caverns which Herod, the Romans and the Sicarii all used to stored thousands of litres of water.

The Siege of Masada (72 AD)

In the year 72 AD the Roman governor of Judaea Lucius Flavius Silva finally decided to attack Masada. He brought a Roman legion, auxiliaries and Jewish prisoners of war, in total numbering over 10,000 men to attack the fortress.

On arriving, Silva had his legionaries build a wall around the entire plateau. Then, knowing that they could not assault the Snake Trail, Silva ordered his men to build a massive siege ramp up the western side of the cliffs.

The construction of this ramp involved moving thousands of tons of stone and earth; all the while, Masada’s defenders fired projectiles onto those labouring below. The project took several months, but at last the Romans completed the ramp and pushed a huge siege tower (with its own battering ram) up to the walls.

Roman siege ramp at Masada. Image Credit: Israel Tourism / CC.

‘A glorious death’

When the Romans broke down the wall they expected to meet fierce resistance. Instead, the citadel was eerily silent. The Jewish defenders, knowing that the Romans were about to capture and enslave them, had taken drastic action.

After a powerful speech by the Sicarii leader, Eleazar, the Sicarii had committed mass suicide. Eleazar had convinced his supporters that it was more admirable to take their own lives than face torture, enslavement or death at the hands of the Romans. In a shocking display of fanaticism, the Sicarii chose several men by lot to kill the others, then these men took their own lives.

Only two women and five children survived. When the Romans found them they relayed what had happened to their captors. In addition to killing themselves, the Sicarii had burnt all of their stores to prevent the Roman army making use of them. It was an extreme and defiant statement against Roman power.

Masada’s legacy

The physical ruins of Masada can be visited to this day. The fortress stands as a great testimony to Israel’s historic heritage. New archaeological finds, like osctraca (pottery shards) used for choosing lots, are found each year.

Masada’s place in the Israeli national consciousness is even more important. The sacrifice of the Sicarii is celebrated by many as a symbol of Jewish bravery; others view it as a failure to compromise or negotiate.

To this day, members of the Israel Defence Force (IDF) can complete their swearing-in ceremony on top of the plateau. The IDF oath ends with the poignant declaration: “Masada shall not fall again”.

Julius Caesar, the last republican ruler, and Gaius Octavius or Augustus, the first emperor, threw a long shadow over the office. The adoption of either of their names might signal a man’s rise to ultimate power.

With the imperial throne a passport to enormous power and wealth and little to stop the strongest from seizing it or the weakest being propelled into it, it’s no wonder that some Roman emperors are famous for being bad, brutal and even evil.

1. Caligula: 37 – 41 AD

Marble portrait bust of Roman Emperor Caligula

Image Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Selected as emperor by his great uncle Tiberius, Caligula may have ordered his benefactor’s suffocation.

His accession was popular, but after seven months an illness seemed to turn “Little Boots” into a monster. He is called a bad emperor main because of reports that he killed at whim and financed himself with legalised looting.

He built a two-mile pontoon bridge just so he could ride his horse across the Bay of Baiae in defiance of a prophesy. The horse, Incitatus, lived in a marble stable, and Caligula may have made him a consul.

From AD 40 he started to present himself as a god, while his palace was described as a brothel, among the alleged whores his own sisters.

The last straw, after famine and bankruptcy, was a planned move to Egypt to live as a sun god. This triggered his murder in January 41 AD.

2. Nero: 54 – 68 AD

As with all emperors, the horror stories may be the work of his enemies, but Nero has many to his name.

He killed his mother so that he could remarry, by divorcing and then executing his first wife. His second wife he kicked to death. His third marriage was to a freed slave, whom he had castrated, calling him by his second wife’s name.

Personal power was won with indiscriminate execution of enemies and critics, massive tax cuts and huge public entertainments.

When he ordered his secretary to kill him, mistakenly believing the senate’s assassins were on their way, the loudest mourning came from the theatre and the arena.

3. Commodus: 180 – 192 AD

The nicest thing said of Commodus was that he was not evil, but so stupid that he allowed wicked friends to take control of his reign.

He wasn’t short of ego though. He portrayed himself as Hercules, the mythical Greek hero, in countless statues.

His love of the games was such that he fought in them himself, becoming a ridiculous spectacle as he slaughtered ostriches, elephants and giraffes, and defeated human opponents who dared not beat him. He charged the state a massive fee for each appearance.

In 192 AD he renamed Rome Colonia Lucia Annia Commodiana. The months of the year, the legions, the fleet, the senate, the imperial palace, and the citizens of Rome themselves were all named after him.

When he was assassinated the following year, by his wrestling partner, the names were all changed back.

Bust of Emperor Commodus

Image Credit: J. Paul Getty Museum, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons

4. Caracalla: 198 – 217 AD

Ascending to power alongside his brother, Caracalla decided he couldn’t share and had his sibling rival killed, his followers slaughtered and his memory officially erased from history by the Senate.

In power, the man Gibbon (the great historian of the Roman Empire) called “the common enemy of mankind”, spent little time in Rome, choosing instead to ape his hero, Alexander the Great, with conquests in Africa and the Middle East.

He reintroduced Alexander’s by-now obsolete military tactics and persecuted philosophical followers of Aristotle, who legend had it had killed his hero.

A theatrical satire of his excesses staged in Alexandria got under his skin. He took his army to the city and slaughtered the leading citizens before letting his troops off the leash for days of looting that left 20,000 dead.

He was assassinated by a soldier whose brother’s death he had ordered.

5. Maximinus Thrax: 235 to 238 AD

Maximinus exhausted his empire with war. Finally, his troops turned on him. His rule is seen as the start of the great “Military Anarchy” of the third century.

After defeating German tribes at terrible cost, Maximinus went on to fight the Dacians and the Sarmatians simultaneously.

He cared only for the army, whose favour he won by doubling their pay at terrible cost to Rome’s economy.

Because his predecessor had favoured Christians, Maximinus had all church leaders killed.

When the senate backed a revolt against him, he sought to bring his constant war home to Rome. His enemies stood up to him and the siege was the final straw for his troops who killed him, his son, and advisers and took their heads into the city on poles.

Born to rule?

Nero – born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus – was born in 37AD, the great-great grandson of the emperor Augustus, and the great-nephew of the emperor Claudius. Claudius eventually adopted Nero, having married his mother Agrippina, and the teenager’s entrance into public life began. He quickly overtook Claudius’ son Britannicus in popularity and status, cementing his position as Claudius’ heir.

When Claudius died, Nero’s accession was seamless: he had the support of his mother, Agrippina, as well as the Praetorian Guard and many of the senators. Nero was a young man of 17, and many believed his reign would herald the start of a new golden age.

Power and politics

When Nero became emperor in 54AD, the Roman empire was huge – expanding from the northern reaches of Britain all the way down and across to Asia Minor. War with the Parthians on the eastern front of the empire kept troops engaged, and Boudicca’s revolt in Britain in 61AD proved a challenge in the west.

The Roman Empire (purple) as it was when Nero inherited it.

Image Credit: Sarah Roller / British Museum

Keeping such a vast empire unified and well governed was vital to its ongoing prosperity. Nero chose experienced generals and commanders to ensure that he could present his rule as glorious. In Rome, the commemorative Parthian arch was built following victories, and the issuing of new coins depicting Nero in military garb were issued to reinforce images of the emperor as a strong military leader.

Making a spectacle

Beyond Nero’s emphasis on military prowess, he also actively participated in the entertainment organised for his people. Nero was a keen charioteer, supporting the Green faction, and often attended the races at the 150,000 strong Circus Maximus. The emperor also commissioned a new amphitheatre in the Campus Martius, new public baths and a central food market, the Macellum Magnum.

Nero also has a reputation for his performances on stage. Unlike many of his predecessors, Nero didn’t just attend the theatre, he acted and recited poetry too. The elites – particularly the senators – strongly disliked this, believing it was not fitting for the emperor to do such things. However, it seems Nero’s performances were very popular with the people, and helped add to their admiration of him.

Graffiti uncovered in Pompeii and Herculaneum, which was on the walls over 10 years after his death, has been uncovered, alluding to his and Poppaea’s popularity amongst ordinary people. Nero is the emperor whose name features the most in the city.

A bust of Nero and masks used in theatrical productions.

Image Credit: Sarah Roller / British Museum

A ruthless streak

Nero may have been a successful and popular ruler in many respects, but he possessed a vicious streak. His step-brother Britannicus was poisoned shortly after Nero became emperor in order to eliminate any potential threat to his power.

His mother, Agrippina was murdered on Nero’s orders in 59AD: it’s not exactly clear why, but historians and archaeologists have hypothesized it was a combination of revenge for her disapproval at his affair with Poppaea and a way to prevent her exerting her own political influence against him.

Claudia Octavia, Nero’s first wife was banished for alleged adultery: she remained extremely popular, and there were said to be protests on the streets of Rome about his treatment of her. She was forced to commit ritual suicide in exile, and according to legend, her head was cut off and sent to Nero’s new wife, Poppaea. Rumours swirled surrounding the death of his second, very popular, wife Poppaea although many historians believe she probably died from complications following a miscarriage.

‘Fiddled while Rome burnt’

One of the most notorious events in Nero’s reign was the Great Fire of Rome in 64AD: the fire decimated Rome, completely destroying 3 of the city’s 14 districts and seriously damaging a further 7. Despite relief efforts set up by the emperor shortly after the inferno, supposedly rumours began that Nero had started the fire in order to clear room for new building projects. This seems unlikely, given it seems Nero was not actually in the city at this point, although this fact received equal condemnation. It was much later that the famous description of Nero ‘fiddling while Rome burnt’ came into being.

After organising immediate relief including refugee camps, Nero set about having Rome rebuilt in a more orderly plan, and also embarked on his most infamous building project – the Domus Aurea (Golden House), a new palace atop the Esquiline Hill. This was widely condemned as conspicuously lavish and excessive, yet it was no more so than residences of senators and other members of the Roman elite.

Unsurprisingly, rebuilding Rome was expensive: tributes were imposed on Rome’s provinces and coinage was devalued for the first time in the history of the Roman Empire.

Conspiracy

Much of Nero’s early reign was ultimately successful, although resentment from the ruling classes grew slowly but steadily. Many see the Pisonian conspiracy of 65AD as a turning point: over 41 men were named in the conspiracy, including senators, soldiers and equites. Tacitus’ version suggests these men were noble, wanting to ‘rescue’ the Roman empire from Nero the despot.

Shortly after this, in 68AD, Nero faced open rebellion from the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis and later Hispania Tarranconensis. Whilst Nero managed to put down the worst of this rebellion, support for the rebels grew and when the prefect of the Praetorian Guard changed allegiance, Nero fled to Ostia, hoping to board a ship to the loyal eastern provinces of the empire.

When it became apparent he would not be able to flee, Nero returned to Rome. The Senate dispatched men to bring Nero back to Rome – not necessarily with the intention of executing him – and on hearing this, Nero either had one of his loyal freedmen kill him or committed suicide. Supposedly his final words were Qualis artifex pereo (“What an artist dies in me”) although this is according to Suetonius rather than any hard evidence. The line certainly fits the image of Nero as a deluded artist-cum-tyrant. His death marked the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Aftermath

Nero’s death arguably caused more problems than it solved, despite the posthumous declaration of Nero as a public enemy. Rome descended into chaos, and the subsequent year is known as the year of the Four Emperors. Whilst many senators were pleased they were rid of Nero, it seems the general mood was left jubilatory. People were said to mourn on the streets, particularly as the ensuing struggle for power continued to rage.

There were widespread beliefs that Nero was not in fact dead, and that he would return to restore Rome’s glory: several imposters led rebellions in the years after his death. During the reign of Vespasian, many statues and likenesses of Nero were erased or repurposed, and stories of his tyranny and despotism were increasingly incorporated into the canon thanks to histories of Suetonius and Tacitus.

A bust of Emperor Vespasian, which was formerly of Nero. The statue was repurposed between 70 and 80AD.

Image Credit: Sarah Roller / British Museum

Whilst Nero was by no means a model ruler, by the standards of his time he was not unusual. The Roman ruling dynasty could be ruthless and complicated familial relationships were normal. Ultimately Nero’s downfall stemmed from his alienation from the elites – the people’s love and admiration could not save him from political unrest.

And then there were the Roman Emperors.

From decadent teenagers and incapable megalomaniacs to remarkable military leaders and shrewd administrators, the Roman Empire witnessed all sorts of emperors between 27 BC and 410 AD.

Below is a list of every Roman Emperor – from Augustus to the Sack of Rome.

Augustus (27 BC – 19 August 14 AD)

Formerly ‘Octavian’, Augustus was the first Roman emperor. He made the army a formal constitution, created the Praetorian Guard, the Urban Cohorts and the Vigiles, and oversaw a great building project in Rome.

Despite his conservative nature, Augustus’ reign witnessed a series of expansionist wars that resulted in the Roman Empire doubling in size (overshadowed by the Teutoburg Forest disaster of 9 AD). He also had plans for an invasion of Britain, though they did not materialise.

During Augustus’ reign a ruler cult gathered strength, and he was considered whilst alive to be something between god and man; after his death he became more closely associated with the gods.

Tiberius (18 September 14 – 16 March 37)

Augustus was succeeded by his adopted stepson Tiberius, who ensured the integrity of the empire was maintained throughout his rule.

He rebuilt Rome’s military strength along the Rhine frontier to ensure the river fortifications held in the wake of the Teutoburg Forest disaster.

For the last 10 years of his reign, Tiberius retired from Rome to Capri island off the Bay of Naples. This blackened his reputation back in Rome, but elsewhere in the empire this retreat from the capital actually improved his standing. Provincials viewed him as a philosopher king, more learned and more knowledgeable in the relationship of the gods to men than anyone else in the world.

Caligula (16 March 37 – 24 January 41)

Officially Gaius Julius Caesar, Caligula was the son of the famous Roman general Germanicus. He greatly resented the old traditions of the Republic and sought to destroy the reputation of the senatorial class. Ruthless and cruel, he humiliated the senators, much to the delight of the Roman people.

The story goes that he even once made Incitatus, his horse, a consul – to spite the senators and to emphasise his supreme authority. He was assassinated by a senatorial / Praetorian prefect – led conspiracy.

Claudius (24 January 41 – 13 October 54)

Claudius, grandson of Mark Antony, succeeded Caligula following the latter’s assassination. The Praetorian Guard played a key part in the succession and Claudius was sure to reward them with a large donative.

It was during Claudius’ reign that the Romans invaded Britain and established a permanent presence, at least over the southeast.

Nero (13 October 54 – 9 June 68)

Bust of Nero at the Capitoline Museum, Rome. Image Credit: cjh1452000 / Commons.

Although the first five years of his reign proved positive, like Caligula before him, Nero became disillusioned with the aristocracy and the overarching influence of certain figures when he became his own man.

Most notable among these figures was Agrippina, his mother. Nero ordered her execution on 23 March 59 AD and many view this as a significant turning point. From then on the emperor’s reign became more and more infamous.

Several of Nero’s most infamous acts include the persecution of Christians, the murdering of senators (including forcing his former tutor Seneca to commit suicide) and his participation in theatrical performances. Nero was a hellenophile (lover of Greek culture), and aligned himself more as a Hellenistic king than a virtuous Roman emperor – much to the senators’ displeasure.

It is unlikely he played the lyre when Rome burned and actually played an active role in helping the refugees – something that would certainly help explain Nero’s great and enduring popularity amongst the ordinary people of the empire .

Nero committed suicide on 9 June 68, after discovering the Senate had condemned him to death as a public enemy. He was the last of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Galba (June 68 – 15 February 69)

Image Credit: Gfawkes05 / Commons.

In 68, Galba was the governor of Spain. He was encouraged to become emperor in 68, particularly by Vindex, a governor in Gaul, and Otho, the governor of Lusitania. He was proclaimed emperor by the Senate just before Nero committed suicide.

Galba returned to Rome, but soon grew unpopular after he refused to pay the Praetorians.

He was murdered on 15 February 69 in the Roman Forum after Otho, his former friend-turned-foe, bribed a party of Praetorians to murder him.

Otho (15 February – 16 April 69)

Image Credit: euthman / Commons.

With the Praetorians’ backing, Otho succeeded Galba as emperor, killing his former ally’s official heir in the process.

He was soon challenged by Aulus Vitellius, the governor of the province of Germania Inferior, for the title of emperor. Otho’s forces were defeated at the First Battle of Bedriacum on 14 April 69, and the emperor committed suicide two days later.

Vitellius (16 April – 20 December 69)

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Aulus Vitellius was the governor of Germania Inferior in early 69. With his Rhine legions he marched down to Italy, defeated Otho, and was proclaimed emperor on 16 April.

During his brief reign, Vitellius greatly increased the size of his Praetorian Guard, expanding it to 16 cohorts – each 1,000 men strong.

His forces were defeated by those of Vespasian at the Second Battle of Bedriacum on 24 October. After Vitellius was prevented from abdicating his power another battle occurred outside the gates of Rome itself.

Vitellius was defeated, dragged out of the Imperial Palace and killed by Vespasian’s soldiers.

Vespasian (21 December 69 – 23 June 79)

First of the Flavian emperors, he restored a sense of stability following the Year of the 4 Emperors. Significant events during his reign included Titus’ successful (and bloody) Siege of Jerusalem and the Siege of Masada. Construction of the Colosseum also commenced during his reign.

Vespasian’s final words (supposedly) were:

“Vae, puto deus fio.” (“Dear me, I think I’m becoming a god”)

Titus (24 June 79 – 13 September 81)

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The eldest son of Vespasian and the suppressor of the First Jewish Revolt. Best remembered today for the arch constructed in his honour by his successor Domitian. The arch still stands today in the Rome’s Forum, depicting his triumphant Roman army seizing the spoils from the Second Temple of Jerusalem.

Perhaps the most infamous event to occur during Titus’ brief reign was the eruption of Vesuvius and the destruction of Pompeii, Herculaneum and several other settlements around the Bay of Naples, either on 24 August or during mid-October 79.

The Arch of Titus in Rome today.

Domitian (14 September 81 – 18 September 96)

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The younger brother of Titus; the younger son of Vespasian. He may have had a hand in Titus’ early death; famous for being paranoid against assassination attempts and recalling generals who had gained too much success.

Like Caligula and Nero, Domitian soon came at odds with the Senate, curtailing almost all their power as he sought to become an absolute emperor. Successfully repulsed Dacian invasion of Moesia, but a disastrous invasion of Dacia followed.

Construction of the Colosseum, initiated under Vespasian, was completed near the end of Domitian’s reign in 96. He was murdered by his own courtiers on 18 September 96 – much to the delight of the senators, though it also encouraged the wrath of the Praetorian Guard. He was the last of the Flavian dynasty.

Nerva (18 September 96 – 28 January 98)

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Nerva was 60 years old when the senate recognised him as Domitian’s successor on 18 September 96. He had held positions under the Julio-Claudian and Flavian emperors.

In 97 the Praetorian Guard revolted against Nerva’s authority, instigated by their Prefect Casperius Aelianus. They demanded the handing over of Domitian’s assassins. Nerva proved powerless to stop Aelianus, highlighting the weakness of his position. He handed over the assassins and officially adopted Trajan, the soldier-governor of Germania Superior, soon after.

Some have suggested Trajan conspired with Aelianus to instigate the revolt, so as to be named Nerva’s successor.

He died in early 98 and is regarded as the first of the ‘Five Good Emperors.’

Trajan (28 January 98 – 9 August 117)

Marcus Ulpius Trajanus was the most successful military man in Roman history, expanding the Empire to its greatest extent. He won several remarkable military campaigns – against the Dacians and Parthians – and by the time of his death, his empire stretched from the Persian Gulf, to northern Britain.

Although perhaps initiated under Nerva, it was Trajan who formalised the alimenta welfare programme. He also oversaw the construction of several, monumental building projects in Rome: his namesake Column and Forum most notably.

The bridge Trajan had his architect build across the Danube during his Dacian Campaign remained for 1,000 years the longest arched bridge in the world.

Hadrian (11 August 117 – 10 July 138)

Trajan died childless and was succeeded by Hadrian, Trajan’s (unofficial) successor. He spent more time outside Rome than in the capital during his reign. He visited the outposts of the Empire and prioritised solidifying the frontiers. He is best remembered in Britain today for the construction of his namesake wall.

A renowned Hellenophile, Hadrian spent a large amount of his reign in the eastern Mediterranean. He erected several monumental structures in prime Hellenic cities such as Athens and also visited the tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria.

His Hellenistic outlook clashed with Jewish practices, leading to the outbreak of the Third Jewish Revolt, which Hadrian brutally suppressed.

Antoninus Pius (10 July 138 – 7 March 161)

Bust of Antoninus Pius (reign 138–161 CE), ca. 150.

Antoninus Pius was officially adopted by Hadrian 5 months before the latter’s death, but on the condition that he in turn adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Antoninus’ reign was one of relative peace and stability, with the emperor never leaving the safety of central Italy.

It was during Antoninus’ rule that his generals extended the Roman frontier in Britain further north, erecting a turf and timber wall that stretched from the Clyde to the Forth. It was called the Antonine Wall.

Marcus Aurelius (9 March 161 – 17 March 180)

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Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius and co-ruled the Roman Empire with Lucius Verus. He ruled alone following Lucius Verus’ death in 169. He faced his greatest military test against the Marcomanni tribe and their Germanic allies. Depictions of battles from this war are visible on the Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome, Italy.

Despite constant military and political troubles, Marcus’ competent administration reacted well to crises like the flooding of the Tiber in 162. He reformed the currency intelligently in response to changing economic circumstances and picked his advisers well. He was praised for his mastery of the law and his fairness.

Marcus Aurelius was known as ‘the philosopher’ and was particularly influenced by Stoicism. His book on guidance and self-improvement, called ‘Meditations’, is still widely read today.

The historian of his reign, Cassius Dio, wrote that his death marked a descent “from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust.” The last of the 5 Good Emperors.

Lucius Verus (9 March 161 – 23 January 169)

Co-ruled the Roman Empire alongside Marcus Aurelius for nine years. Lucius Verus was younger and more decadent than his co-emperor. His greater military experience meant it was Verus who was sent east with an army to defeat the Parthians.

Verus’ generals won the campaign for him, though the emperor blackened his reputation by sacking the still largely Hellenistic city of Seleukeia on the Tigris.

He returned to Rome with his victorious army and received a triumph alongside Marcus Aurelius, but his men also brought back a plague, known as the Antonine Plague (believed to be smallpox). Lucius succumbed to the plague in 169.

Commodus (177 – 31 December 192)

The son of Marcus Aurelius who failed to live up to his father’s virtuous reputation. He initially ruled as co-emperor alongside his father for three years and afterwards ruled alone. His rule is defined by paranoia, decadence and megalomania; he is considered one of Rome’s worst emperors.

He believed he was Hercules reincarnated, depicting himself as such in sculpture, dressing as the hero and ordering people to call him Hercules; he fought as a gladiator and usually armed himself with a club to mimic his hero Heracles (his opponents stretched from crippled soldiers to exotic beasts which shocked the Roman public); he also renamed Rome following a great fire, calling it Colonia Commodiana.

It is no surprise that Commodus was later murdered – choked to death by his fitness coach.

Pertinax (1 January – 28 March 193)

Roman aureus struck under the rule of Pertinax. Image Credit: Classical Numismatic Group / Commons.

Pertinax was proclaimed emperor by the Senate in the early morning of 1 January 193, having gained the support of the Praetorian Guard by offering them a large donative. Although he managed to pay the Guard this donative, he failed to win their complete trust.

The men had grown use to the luxuries showered on them by Commodus and were averse to Pertinax’s attempts to reduce their extravagances and restore integrity.

Some of the Praetorians were angered by this swift, radical change and on 28 March, they stormed the Palace and killed the Emperor.

With no clear successor, civil war ensued.

Didius Julianus (28 March – 2 June 193)

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The Praetorians proclaimed Didius Julianus emperor at their camp on the same day of Pertinax’s death, after the statesman had offered the soldiers 25,000 sesterces each for their loyalty.

Despite the popular conception, Didius did not win the throne because he simply ‘outbid’ Sulpicianus, another statesman who similarly desired the throne and had offered each Praetorian 20,000 sesterces.

Rather, Sulpicianus was Pertinax’s father-in-law and it is likely the Praetorians had feared retribution if they had picked a man related to the emperor they had just murdered.

Didius’ reign was highly-contested; once news of Pertinax’s murder reached generals and governors in the provinces, three others assumed the royal purple. Didius was deserted of allies and killed on 2 June, after one of his rivals, Septimius Severus, arrived in Italy with an army.

Pescennius Niger (April 93 – April 94)

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The governor of Syria at the time of Pertinax’s murder, he was proclaimed emperor by his troops after they received word of Didius’ accession.

Despite controlling a large number of legions and the vital province of Egypt (the main source of Rome’s grain supply), Severus defeated Niger in a series of battles, culminating in the decisive Battle of Issus on 31 March 194.

He was killed within the next month.

Clodius Albinus (93 – 19 February 197)

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Clodius Albinus was the Governor of Britain at the time of Pertinax’s assassination and may have played a covert role in the plot to assassinate Commodus through his friends in the senate (it was said that Commodus, due to the Albinus’ renowned reputation, had ordered him be his successor).

As Governor of Britain, Albinus had three legions at his disposal and was acclaimed emperor. He formed an alliance with Severus in 193, becoming his Caesar (successor), leaving the latter free to fight Niger in the east.

In 196 however Severus, in his attempts to start a Severan dynasty, betrayed the agreement with Albinus and attempted to have his Caesar assassinated. Albinus survived and Severus declared him a political enemy of the state.

Albinus mustered his legions and sailed to Gaul with most of the British garrison. He faced Severus for the decisive battle at Lugdunum on 19 February 197. Although more recently debated by scholars, 300,000 Romans are said to have participated at this battle (150,000 on either side), making it the biggest in Roman history.

Albinus narrowly lost the battle, and his life. He was the greatest challenge Severus ever faced to his rule.

Septimius Severus (14 April 193 – 4 February 211)

Septimius Severus originally hailed from Lepcis Magna in North Africa. At the time of Pertinax’s assassination, Severus was the governor of Pannonia Superior and was proclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions (stationed in modern day Bosnia) soon after.

Severus quickly seized Rome, reformed the Praetorian Guard and made an alliance with Albinus, before he marched east and crushed Niger’s forces in Anatolia. He then turned on Albinus, defeating him at Lugdunum in February 197.

Severus went on to launch military conquests at the limits of his empire: in the Near East against the Parthians, in Africa and in northern Britain.

The largest campaigning force ever to fight in Britain was led by Severus into Scotland in 209 and 210 BC. It numbered 50,000 men, as well as 7,000 sailors and marines from the regional fleet Classis Britannica.

He died in York on 4 February 211.

Caracalla (209 – 8 April 217)

Eldest son of Severus. Initially ruled as co-emperor, first with his father Severus and then with his hated younger brother Geta. He had Geta murdered in December 211, and his face removed from all public images.

Caracalla was one of Rome’s worst emperors. He was a megalomaniac; he believed he was Alexander the Great reborn; he called himself the Great Alexander and equipped some of his soldiers with Alexander-era weapons – arming them with pikes and naming them Alexander’s phalanx. It is not surprising that Caracalla was murdered soon after.

Geta (4 February 211 – 26 December 211)

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Son of Septimius Severus; younger brother of Caracalla. Ruled with Caracalla for less than a year before his elder brother had him executed. Caracalla then had Geta’s face removed from all public images – damnatio memoriae.

Macrinus (11 April 217 – June 218)

Image Credit: José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / Commons.

Praetorian Prefect of Caracalla who supposedly ordered the emperor’s assassination near the ancient town of Carrhae. He assumed the title of emperor as Caracalla had no clear successor.

Discontent quickly spread in the army regarding Macrinus’ rule however. His reign was challenged; Macrinus was defeated in battle, forced to flee, captured and beheaded.

He never set foot in Rome.

Elagabalus (16 May 218 – 11 March 222)

Image Credit: José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro / Commons.

The man chosen by the army to replace Macrinus was Varius Avitus Bassianus, better known as Elagabalus.

He proposed radical and highly-unpopular religious reform upon returning to Rome, when he planned to replace the chief traditional Roman god Jupiter with Elagabal, the Syrian sun god. He then (briefly) married a Vestal Virgin, and proceeded to show no interest in managing the empire.

He became the epitome of decadence and proved highly unpopular. Arguably, he was THE worst Roman Emperor.

He and his controlling mother were executed at the Castra Praetoria on 11 March 222 – their beheaded bodies were dragged through the streets of Rome and deposited in the Tiber.

Severus Alexander (11 or 13 March 222 – 18 March 235)

Cousin of Elagabulus. When Severus was proclaimed the new imperial ruler, he was just 13 years old. During his teenage years Julia Mamaea, Alexander’s mother, effectively ruled.

Both Alexander and his mother proved inept at conducting military campaigns at a time when the empire was under threat in both Europe and the Near East. In the end, the army sought a new emperor who had proven himself in war.

Alexander was assassinated by his own soldiers at Mainz on either 18 or 19 March 235, along with his mother.

His assassination marked the end of the Severan dynasty.

Maximinus Thrax (March 235 – May 238)

Hailing from a lowly family in Thrace, Maximinus Thrax had risen through the ranks of the Roman military. By 235, he was a high-standing general within Alexander Severus’ army and was the commander who the army turned to when they lost faith in the young emperor.

He lacked support in the Senate due to his ‘barbarian’ roots, but he had the support of the army. He won a couple of victories in Germania but little else.

The Patrician Senate soon threw their support behind several other imperial candidates and declared Maximinus an enemy of the state in 238. He was killed by his Praetorian Guard, after he suffered a series of setbacks besieging the city of Aquileia.

He never set foot in Rome and was the first of the Barracks / Soldier Emperors.

Gordian I and II (22 March 238 – 12 April 238)

Gordian I.

Gordian I was the elderly provincial governor of Africa during Maximinus’ reign. An uprising against corrupt tax officials forced him to assume the purple, along with his son, and they soon received the official backing of the senate.

The neighbouring governor of Numidia, however, was an ally of Maximinus. He marched on Carthage and defeated the militia, killing Gordian II in the process.

When Gordian I learned of his son’s death in battle, he hanged himself.

They had ruled just 22 days.

Gordian II. Image Credit: Classical Numismatic Group / Commons.

Pupienus and Balbinus (22 April – 29 July 238)

After the demise of the Gordian co-emperors, the Senate elected two of its own members to the throne: Pupienus Maximus and Balbinus.

Pupienus marched north and oversaw the defeat and death of Maximinus outside Aquileia. He then returned to Rome, which was in a state of anarchy.

The Emperors were soon seized by members of the Praetorian Guard, stripped, dragged through the streets, tortured and killed.

Balbinus. Image Credit: George Shuklin / Commons.

Gordian III (29 July 238 – 25 February 244)

The popular boy-emperor Gordian III, credit: Ancienne collection Borghèse ; acquisition, 1807 / Borghese Collection; purchase, 1807.

The grandson of the elderly Gordian I. He was appointed Caesar (successor) during the brief reign of Pupienus and Balbinus. He ruled from 239 – 244, largely as a figurehead controlled by his advisers, particularly the head of the Praetorian Guard, Timesitheus, who was also his father in law.

Gordian III died of unknown causes while campaigning in the Middle East.

Philip the Arab (244 – 249)

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Succeeded the successful Timesitheus as Gordian III’s Praetorian Prefect in early 244. He may have had a role in Gordian III’s death, though this is debated.

Upon his return to Europe, Philip won victories against the Dacian Carpi tribe and the Germans and over the next 5 years several challenges to his rule were suppressed. In 249 however, his successful general Quintus Decius Valerinus defeated a Gothic rebellion and was pronounced emperor by his troops.

Philip was defeated and killed by Decius’ army in late 249.

Philip II (237 – 249)

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Son and heir of Philip the Arab. Murdered by the Praetorian Guard in 249, when word reached the capital of his father’s death against Decius. He was only 11 years old.

Decius (249 – June 251)

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After the deaths of Philip the Arab and his son, Decius ruled as emperor for two years. He spent most of his reign fighting the Goths, who had returned following his victory over them barely two years earlier.

Decius’ second campaign against the Goths did not prove as successful. He and his legions were soundly defeated at the Battle of Abritus. Decius died during the battle and was the first Roman Emperor to be killed by a foreign invader.

Decius persecuted Christians during his brief reign.

Herennius Etruscus (251)

Son and co-emperor alongside Decius during 251. He was killed at the Battle of Abritus, alongside his father.

Trebonianus Gallus (July 251 – 253)

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Chosen as emperor following the death of Decius and Herennius Etruscus at Abritus. His reign was plagued by invasions from Visigoth and Sassanian forces.

Defeated by the imperial challenger Aemilianus at the Battle of Interamna Nahars in 253 and was murdered by his own men soon after.

Hostilian (July – November 251)

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Youngest son of the Emperor Decius. He was made co-emperor alongside Trebonianus Gallus in 251, following Decius’ death at the Abritus, but died from plague in November 251.

Volusianus (November 251 – 253)

The son of Trebonianus Gallus. Becomes co-emperor alongside his father following the death of Hostilian. He was killed, along with his father, by their own troops after Aemilianus defeated them at the Battle of Interamna Nahars.

Aemilianus (253)

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In 253 Aemilianus commanded a large Roman army in Asia Minor. He won a resounding victory against the invading Goths and his troops subsequently crowned him emperor. He marched on Rome, defeated Trebonianus Gallus and Volusanius in battle and assumed the royal title.

He was killed by his own soldiers barely three months after becoming emperor after they discovered that a large army, commanded by the Rhine governor Valerian, was marching south to challenge Aemilianus’ rule.

Valerian (253 – 260)

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Experienced commander and patrician, Valerian succeeded Aemilianus as emperor. He spent very little time in Rome, prioritising the need to combat the rising power of the Sasanian king Shapur I in the east.

He became the first and only Roman emperor to be captured and taken prisoner in battle, when he was defeated by Shapur at the Battle of Edessa in 260. Some claimed Valerian was then humiliated by his captors, being used as a human footstool by Shapur whenever he mounted his horse.

Gallienus (253 – 268)

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Son of Valerian and co-emperor alongside his father between 253 and 260. He won a series of military victories in the north and east, (perhaps) culminating in a decisive victory over the Goths at Naissus in 268 (there is debate whether it was Gallienus or his successor Claudius who achieved this victory).

Gallienus made reforms to the army, especially among the cavalry to make his forces more effective against the Sasanians. He also proved more tolerant to Christians than his father.

He was assassinated by senior officers in his army while besieging the force of a would-be-usurper at Mediolanum.

Saloninus (260)

The son of Gallienus. Between 258 and 260 Gallienus had named him his official successor. In 260 Saloninus was residing in Colonia Agrippina when Postumus, the governor of Upper and Lower Germany, revolted and laid siege to the city.

Saloninus was declared co-emperor during the siege in the vain hope this would deter the besieging soldiers from continuing their military action. It didn’t work. The city succumbed to Postumus’ forces and Saloninus was executed.

Claudius II ‘Gothicus’ (268 – 270)

Image Credit: Ángel M. Felicísimo  / Commons.

Gallienus’ assassination in 268 brought Claudius to the throne. Claudius had served as the commander of Gallienus’ reformed, elite cavalry wing.

He won a decisive victory against the Goths at the Battle of Naissus in 268, although some argue this was achieved by the Emperor Gallienus the previous year. He went on to gain another decisive victory a few months later, in late 268, at the Battle of Lake Benacus.

Claudius had hoped to now start reuniting his divided empire by reducing the Gallic Empire in the west and the Palmyrene Empire in the east to his will. He succumbed to plague, however, in early 270.

Quintillus (270)

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Brother of Claudius II. Reigned for only a few months in 270. He was either murdered by his soldiers or forced to commit suicide.

Aurelian (270 – 275)

It had been the aim of Claudius II ‘Gothicus’ to reunite the divided Roman Empire, but it was Aurelian who saw this through.

First he threw barbarians from Italy and then Roman territory. He defeated the Goths in the Balkans and wisely decided to step back from defending Dacia.

Boosted by these victories he overthrew the Palmyrene Empire, which had grown from captured Roman provinces in North Africa and the Middle East, important sources of grain for Rome. Next were the Gauls in the west, completing a complete reunification of the Empire and earning Aurelian the title, “Restorer of the World.”

He didn’t just fight, he brought stability to religious and economic life, rebuilding public buildings and tackling corruption.

Despite his successes and support among the troops, Aurelian was assassinated by traitors who envied his success in 275.

Tacitus (275 – June 276)

Following Aurelian’s assassination the Senate appointed the 75 year old senator Marcus Claudius Tacitus to assume the purple. During his brief reign he won a victory against dissident Gothic and Heruli mercenaries originally recruited by Aurelian.

He died of fever in Cappadocia in June 276.

Florianus (June – September 276)

Praetorian Prefect and half-brother of the Emperor Tacitus. Assumed the royal purple after Tacitus’ demise, but immediately found his rule challenged by Probus, a powerful general in the east.

Florianus’ army fell ill while stationed in Cilicia however. Dissent grew and eventually, in September 276, they mutinied and murdered Florianus.

Probus (276 – 282)

One of the finest generals of his generation, Probus added the finishing touches to Aurelian’s military successes, consolidating the newly-united empire in the east and west.

He won victories against various enemies, including the Goths, the Alamanni, the Burgundians and the Vandals. He also brought greater stability to the empire in the east, agreeing a treaty with the Sasanians.

Probus was eventually killed by usurpers – murdered in a military building. He was one of Rome’s greatest later emperors.

Rome’s Aurelian Walls were completed during Probus’ reign.

Carus (282 – 283)

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Praetorian Prefect of Probus, proclaimed emperor in 282. Bribed soldiers to betray Probus, who was killed soon after.

During his brief reign, Carus won victories on Rome’s Danube river against barbarian tribes, but died in the east while campaigning against the Sasanians in 283. He was supposedly struck by lightening.

Carinus (283 – 285)

Bust of Carinus. Image Credit: Montemartini_-_Carino_1030439.JPG: Lalupa / Commons.

Eldest son of Carus. Famous womaniser. After his father’s death Carinus returned to Rome and initially ruled jointly with his younger brother Numerian.

After the death of Numerian and the army’s proclamation of Diocletian as emperor, Carinus marched east to confront the challenger. After defeating Julian, another usurper, with relative ease, Carinus confronted Diocletian at the Battle of the Margus River.

He was murdered by his own men, either during or soon after the battle.

Numerian (283 – 284)

Son of Carus; younger brother of Carinus. Ruled with his brother between 283 and 284, before dying on his return from the east. He was possibly murdered by Lucius Aper, Numerian’s Praetorian Prefect.

Diocletian (284 – 1 May 305)

Proclaimed emperor by Numerian’s army following his sudden death. Diocletian quickly confirmed he played no part in the assassination, blaming and killing Aper, the Praetorian Prefect.

Defeated Carinus at the Battle of the Margus River.

Diocletian went on to rejuvenate the Roman Empire, doubling the size of the army, reforming the empire’s administration and creating the ‘tetrarchic system’ of rule.

On 1 May 305 Diocletian abdicated his role as Augustus and retired to Dalmatia. He died on 3 December 312, living long enough to see his ‘tetrarchic’ system of rule decay among his successors.

He is considered the emperor who brought an end to the Third Century Crisis.

Maximian (2 April 286 – 1 May 305)

Maximian ruled as co-emperor in the west (with the title Augustus) alongside Diocletian. He was a military man who fought rebels and incursions in Gaul, Germania and Spain. Maximian later tried to depose both his own son, Maxentius and Emperor Constantine. He committed suicide on Constantine’s orders in 310.

Bust of Emperor Maximian. Image Credit: PierreSelim / Commons.

Constantius I (1 May 305 – 25 July 306)

Constantius I, known as Chlorus, was a successful general and emperor in the west who overcame a usuper in Britain, the Alamanni, the Franks and the Picts beyond the Antonine Wall in Scotland.

He died suddenly in Eboracum (York) in 306, sparking the collapse of Diocletian’s tetrarchic system of government and beginning a civil war.

Coin of Constantius I.

Valerius Severus (Summer 306 – March/April 307)

Valerius Severus was proclaimed Augustus in the west when news of Constantius’ death reached his army. After his forces came up against Maximian (the former emperor) and his son Maxentius, they defected to Maximian. Severus was killed soon after.

Coin of Valerius Severus. Image Credit: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / Commons.

Maxentius (28 October 306 – 28 October 312)

Maxentius was the son of Maximian. He was declared emperor following Constantius’ death and defeated Severus; shortly afterwards his own father tried to depose him, but failed. When Maxentius was defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Constantine and his allies he fell into the Tiber and drowned.

Constantine the Great (25 July 306 – 22 May 337)

Constantine I was the son of Constantius I. He was proclaimed Augustus at Eboracum (York) following the death of his father, but had to deal with the challenges of Severus and Maxentius before he could rule.

He defeated his rivals in the west at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, where he is said to have told his soldiers to fight under the Christian symbol of chi-rho.

Constantine then overcame Licinius, the emperor in the east, to become ruler of the whole Roman Empire. He established a new capital for the empire at Byzantium, re-naming it Constantinople.

Constantine helped convert the Roman Empire to Christianity. He passed the Edict of Milan which proclaimed religious tolerance towards Christians and convened the Council of Nicaea.  On his deathbed, he was baptised and officially converted to Christianity.

Constantine’s Conversion, Rubens.

Constantine II (22 May 337 – 340)

Constantine II was the eldest son of Constantine the Great. Raised as a Christian, he was made the guardian of his younger brother Constans.

After their father Constantine’s death the empire was split among his sons, but Constantine II complained that his own portion in the west was too small. He was killed in Italy while trying to assert control over Constans.

Statue of Constantine II. Image Credit: TckfaPanairjdde / Commons.

Constans (22 May 337 – 350)

Constans was the youngest son of Constantine the Great. He defeated his eldest brother’s attempt to gain control of the whole western empire in 340 and ruled for another decade.

He was a successful general and religiously tolerant. However, Constans lost control of the army owing to his homosexuality and cruelty, resulting in his assassination in 350.

Bust of Constans.

Constantius II (22 May 337 – November 361)

Constantius II was the middle son of Constantine the Great. He ruled as emperor in the east while his brothers quarrelled over the western empire, and after Constans’ assassination he took control over the entire empire.

He advocated Christianity and vanquished several rivals during his lengthy reign. He died of natural causes while marching against a usurper, his general Julian.

Bust of Constantius II.

Julian the Apostate (3 November 361 – 26 June 363)

Julian ruled the west under Constantius II. In 360 his army declared him sole Augustus and they marched against Constantius II, who died died before their forces met.

Julian is famous for rejecting Christianity (the last Roman emperor to do so) and promoting a form of paganism called Neoplatonic Hellenism. He died while campaigning against the Sasanians.

Portrait of Julian the Apostate.

Jovian (26 June 363 – 17 February 364)

Jovian was a prominent general in Julian’s campaigns. After Julian’s death he agreed a disadvantageous treaty with the Sasanians and reestablished Christianity as the Roman state church. He died (probably) of natural causes after 8 months as emperor.

Sasanian relief at Taq-e Bostan showing the fallen Emperor Julian. Image Credit: Philippe Chavin / Commons.

Valentinian I (26 March 364 – 16 November 375)

Valentinian I is often thought to be the ‘last great western emperor’. After being chosen to replace Jovian he appointed his brother Valens as Eastern Roman Emperor, keeping the west for himself. He repelled barbarian incursions around the Western Empire and established the Valentinian dynasty.

Gratian (16 November 375 – 25 August 383)

Gratian was the eldest son of Valentinian. He was the last emperor to successfully campaign across the Rhine, the historic border between the Roman Empire and the Germanic tribes. He ruled parts of the Western Empire alongside his younger brother.

Gratian’s favouritism towards his Scythian bodyguards angered the Roman army and enabled Magnus Maximus to overthrow him.

Coin of Gratian. Image Credit: Rasiel Suarez / Commons.

Valentinian II (22 November 375 – 15 May 392)

Valentinian II was the younger son of Valentinian I. He was appointed as Gratian’s co-emperor at the age of just four years old. Gratian commanded Gaul, Spain and Britain while Valentinian held Italy and North Africa.

After Magnus Maximius was defeated by Eastern Emperor Theodosius, the young Valentinian II was placed under the control of Theodosius’ trusted general, Arbogast. When Valentinian began to defy him, Arbogast had him hanged.

Statue of Valentinian II.

Magnus Maximus (384 – 28 August 388)

Maximus was a commander in Britain who overthrew Gratian. The Eastern Emperor Theodosius allowed Maximus to rule Britain and Gaul, but with Maximus threatening Italy Emperor Theodosius routed his armies.

Maximus stripped Britain of much of its garrison when he marched on Italy, leaving it vulnerable to barbarian incursions.

Portrait of Magnus Maximus.

Eugenius (22 August 392 – 6 September 394)

Eugenius was placed on the throne by Arbogast after he killed Valentinian II. He is notable as the last emperor to promote Roman paganism. Arbogast knew that, as a Frank, he would rule more easily through a puppet like Eugenius. Eugenius and Arbogast were defeated by Eastern Emperor Theodosius at the Battle of the Frigidus.

Theodosius I (15 May 392 – 17 January 395)

Theodosius the Great was first a successful Eastern Roman Emperor. He crushed the usurpers Magnus Maximius, Arbogast and Eugenius and took control of the Western Roman Empire. He was the last man to rule over a united Roman empire.

However, Theodosius began the policy of making barbarian tribes foederati, giving them land inside the Western Empire in exchange for military services. These autonomous tribes were now the backbone of the Roman army. They soon controlled, then destroyed, the Western Empire.

He officially banned paganism throughout the empire.

Dish showing Theodosius I.

Honorius (17 January 395 – 15 August 423)

Honorius was the younger son of Theodosius I. He is the last figure on our list of Roman emperors. He was protected in the early part of his reign by his father-in-law Stilicho, a powerful general who has been called ‘the last of the Romans’.

Honorius’ later reign was plagued by barbarian invasions into Italy by the Goths and Visigoths. For his own safety he moved his capital from Rome to Milan, and then again to Ravenna.

Mid-way through his rule Honorius refused to meet the demands of King Alaric I of the Visigoths, who laid siege to Rome itself. On 24 August 410 Alaric’s troops sacked the city.

The sack, a massive blow to all Romans, was a watershed moment in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. It was the first time Rome had been captured by a foreign foe in 800 years.

The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths.

When you hear the name Nero, you would be easily forgiven for thinking of outrageous luxury, horrific crimes and other actions associated with a crazed madman. Indeed, that has been his portrayal in all our surviving sources and reflected in the media of today.

Yet what if instead of being Roman Emperor, this man had been a Hellenistic King?

If we consider him in this context, then it is fascinating to wonder how different his portrayal would have been.

The Hellenistic Kingdoms were the Hellenic-cultured domains that dominated the Eastern Mediterranean following the death of Alexander the Great: from the kingdoms of Epirus and Macedonia in the west to the Greco-Asian Kingdom of Bactria in Afghanistan.

Each kingdom was ruled by a monarch, ambitious to make his mark on the world. To define oneself as a good Hellenistic king, he needed to show certain qualities. Nero shared some of the most important qualities of such a monarch.

Busts of Seleucus I ‘Nicator’ and Lysimachus, two of the most powerful Hellenistic kings.

Benefaction

Nothing more so defined a good Hellenistic king than giving benefaction. Benefaction could be classified as any act that either supported, improved or protected a city or region under a person’s control.

You could easily compare it to a company donor today. Although not the face of the company, his/her generous financial support of that group would significantly help support the business. Simultaneously it would also give the donor much influence over making key decisions and affairs.

Similarly, the generous benefactions to cities and regions by Hellenistic kings gave them great influence and power in that area. In one place more than most did these rulers use this policy. None other than at the heart of civilisation itself.

Greece

The history of Greece is one encapsulated by fighting monarchical powers and preserving their respective cities from tyrannical rule. The expulsion of Hippias, the Persian Wars and the Battle of Chaeronea – all key examples where Greek city states had actively tried to prevent any sort of despotic influence on their homelands.

To the rest of the Hellenistic World, monarchy was an accepted part of life – the royal house of Alexander and Philip II for example, had ruled Macedonia for nearly 500 years. To the mainland Greek city-states however, it was a disease that had to be stopped from spreading to its own cities.

You can see the problem therefore that Hellenistic kings faced if they wanted to impose their authority over Greek city states. Benefaction was the answer.

So long as this king provided special guarantees to their cities, especially regarding their freedom, then having an influential monarch was acceptable to the Greek city states. Benefaction removed the idea of servitude.

What about Nero?

Nero’s treatment of Greece followed a very similar path. Suetonius, our best source for Nero’s character, highlights this man’s benefaction in the Greek province of Achaea.

Although Suetonius tries to blacken the tour by highlighting Nero’s crazed desire for consistently hosting musical contests, there was one key thing this emperor did to define him as a great Hellenistic King.

His gifting of freedom to the entirety of the Greek province was an amazing act of generosity. This freedom, alongside an exemption from taxes, established Achaea as one of the most prestigious provinces in the Empire.

For a Hellenistic King, granting a Greek city freedom from direct rule was one of the greatest acts of benefaction possible. Nero did this for a whole region.

Not only would Nero’s actions here have matched that of many remarkable Hellenistic Kings (men such as Seleucus and Pyrrhus), it outdid them. Nero was quite clearly showing that it was he who was the best benefactor Greece had ever witnessed.

A bust of King Pyrrhus.

A love for all things Greek

Not just in Greece however, did Nero showed signs of being a good Hellenistic king. His love of Greek culture resulted in its reflection in many of his actions back in Rome.

Regarding his building projects, Nero ordered the construction of permanent theatres and gymnasia in the capital: two of the most identifiable buildings used by Hellenistic Kings to promote their power to the world.

In his art, he portrayed himself in the youthful Hellenistic style whilst he also introduced a new Greek-style festival to Rome, the Neronia. He gave gifts of oil to his senators and equestrians – a tradition very much stemming from the Greek world.

All this benefaction to Rome was due to Nero’s personal love of Greek culture. A rumour even circulated that Nero planned to rename Rome to the Greek Neropolis! Such ‘Greekcentric’ actions helped define a good Hellenistic King.

The Roman problem

Yet Rome was not a Greek city. In fact, it prided itself and its culture for being unique and completely different to the Hellenic World.

High-standing Romans did not view the construction of gymnasia and theatres as virtuous deeds for the people. Instead, they viewed them as places from which vice and decadence would take hold of the youth. Such a view would be unheard of if Nero had constructed these buildings in the Hellenistic World.

Imagine, therefore, what if Rome had been a Greek city? If so, it is fascinating to consider how differently history would regard these actions. Rather than being the acts of a villain, they would be the gifts of a great leader.

Conclusion

Considering Nero’s other extreme vices (murder, corruption etc), many things would define him as a universally bad ruler. Yet this small piece has hopefully shown that there was potential in Nero to be a great leader. Unfortunately, he was simply born a couple of hundred years too late.