Art | History Hit https://www.historyhit.com Wed, 26 Apr 2023 13:41:03 +0000 en-GB hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=5.9.9 Icon of 1960s Britain: Who Was Mary Quant? https://www.historyhit.com/culture/who-was-mary-quant/ Wed, 26 Apr 2023 13:41:03 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?post_type=culture_articles&p=5199302 Continued]]> Mary Quant was one of the most influential fashion designers of the 20th century, known for her innovative designs that revolutionised the way women dressed in the 1960s.

Quant grew up during World War Two and was inspired by the colourful fabrics and fashions of the post-war era. Her playful and daring designs, including the iconic mini-skirt and her Vidal Sassoon bob haircut, became synonymous with the Swinging Sixties and helped to define a generation.

So how did Mary Quant transform 1960s fashion?

Early life

Mary Quant was born in Blackheath, London in 1930. Her parents were schoolteachers, and she had a young brother, John, whom she was evacuated with to Kent during World War Two. After her parents persuaded her to pursue art rather than fashion, Quant later studied illustration and art education at Goldsmiths, where she met her future husband, aristocrat Alexander Plunket Greene.

After graduating in 1953, Quant began an apprenticeship at a high-end Mayfair milliner – Erik Braagaard.

Bazaar

In 1955, Quant’s husband bought Markham House on the King’s Road in Chelsea, an area popular with a group of young artists and socialites known as the ‘Chelsea Set’.

Quant, Plunket Greene and their friend, lawyer-turned-photographer Archie McNair, opened a restaurant called Alexander’s in the basement which they co-owned, and created a boutique called ‘Bazaar’ on the building’s ground floor.

All played to their strengths, and Quant began designing clothes for Bazaar, which quickly gained a reputation for its fun, quirky and eclectic designs, becoming a popular destination for young women looking to wear something different to their mothers.

Mary Quant at her Knightsbridge branch of boutique Bazaar in 1967

Image Credit: Alamy / Pictorial Press Ltd

Quant initially sold outfits sourced from wholesalers, but soon became frustrated with the options available. The bolder pieces from her own collection started garnering more attention, including a pair of quirky lounge pyjamas she had designed for the boutique’s opening (later featured in Harper’s Bazaar magazine, then bought by an American manufacturer). This inspired her to stock Bazaar with her own pioneering designs.

Quant was self-taught, taking evening classes to finesse her technical proficiency in dress-pattern-cutting to put outfits together for herself. She drew inspiration from the Chelsea Set and the Mods (another youth-culture in late-1950’s Britain), creating alternative and riskier designs than the standard ‘mature’ styles of other designers. Her cottage-industry approach (she used proceeds from the day’s sales to pay for the cloth that was then used to create more stock overnight for the following day) meant Bazaar’s stock was continually refreshed with new designs, satisfying her customers’ quest for fresh looks.

Quant’s youthful, modern clothes were more relaxed than her competitors, designed to suit normal life. By 1957, demand meant a second Bazaar store was opened in Knightsbridge, designed by her friend Terence Conran.

Quant created a special informal environment (including loud music, free drinks, daring and eccentric window displays, and long hours) that appealed to young adults – further differentiating Quant from traditional department stores and inaccessible high-class designer store environments.

Bazaar and Alexander’s thus became a hub for models, photographers, pop stars and fashionable women wanting to be part of what became the Swinging Sixties scene.

Quant stocked bright, colourful tights (including colours such as ginger, prune and grape), and paired these with short tunic dresses, creating high fashion versions of practical childhood outfits. This further enhanced the modern look of her designs, as did her creativity in playing with scale and proportion, her interest in the unexpected, and her irreverent approach, such as her line of men’s cardigans long-enough to be worn as dresses.

Quant was inspired by the era’s youthful energy and optimism, and also experimented with new materials. She was the first designer to use PVC, creating ‘wet look’ clothes and new styles of weatherproof boots (‘Quant Afoot’). She also experimented with nylon, incorporating bold patterns and bright colours. Her clothing was playful and daring, with short hemlines, plastic collars, the ‘skinny rib’ jumper, and bold prints challenging the conventions of the time.

Mini-skirt

Mary Quant’s designs gained national and international attention in the early 1960s. She signed a design contract with US department-store chain JC Penney in 1962, and introduced a cheaper line, ‘Ginger Group’, in the UK mass-market in 1963 – the same year The Sunday Times awarded her an International Award ‘for jolting England out of a conventional attitude towards clothes’.

In 1965 she raised hemlines to create the mini-skirt, which became her trademark and a symbol of the Swinging Sixties. Despite debates over the actual inventor of this style, Quant is often credited with introducing the mini-skirt – a daring departure from the long skirts and dresses that had been in fashion for decades – popularised by Twiggy, the most high profile model of the era.

Twiggy outside her North London home, 1966

Image Credit: Alamy / Everett Collection Inc

The mini-skirt was liberating for women, allowing them to move much more freely and express themselves in new, sexier ways. It was also controversial – many critics accused Quant of promoting immorality and indecency.

Quant is said to have named the skirt after her favourite make of car, the Mini, and described its wearers as “curiously feminine” with their femininity lying “in their attitude rather than in their appearance”.

By 1966, Quant was working with 18 manufacturers.

Bob haircut and further impact on the 1960s

Quant’s influence extended beyond fashion, becoming a cultural icon of the era. Her famous Vidal Sassoon bob haircut was also a symbol of the Swinging Sixties, with Sassoon’s architectural way of cutting hair going perfectly with her graphic designs, and many women wanted to emulate Quant’s look.

Fashion designer Mary Quant having the finishing touches made to her new hairstyle by Vidal Sassoon 12 November 1964

Image Credit: Alamy / Trinity Mirror / Mirrorpix

Quant was also known for her collaborations with other artists and designers, including photographer David Bailey, and was friends with John Lennon. 

In 1966 (the year she invented the forerunner to hot pants), Quant was awarded an OBE and published her autobiography, Quant by Quant. Her famous Daisy logo was registered and began appearing on all packaging, as well as her cosmetics range. In 1967, she opened her third boutique, and designed berets for British headwear company Kangol.

Bazaar closed in 1969. Quant was the UK’s most high-profile fashion designer, with an estimated 7 million women worldwide owning at least one of her products.

Later career

Quant remained working in fashion, but from the late 1970s, produced womenswear and interior designs and products for British manufacturing company ICI, as well as swimwear, hosiery, jewellery, make-up and skincare product ranges – and her Daisy fashion doll.

In the 1980’s she revived her cosmetics under licence in Japan, introduced skincare for men, and in 1988, designed the interior of the Mini for a limited edition version. In 1990, Quant received the British Fashion Council’s Hall of Fame Award. She resigned as director of Mary Quant Ltd in 2000, and published her second autobiography in 2012.

In 2015, Mary Quant was made a Dame, and in January 2023, was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in the 2023 New Year Honours.

Quant died on 13 April 2023 aged 93.

Legacy

Mary Quant’s influence on the fashion industry and popular culture is still felt today. Her daring designs and playful spirit paved the way for a new generation of designers unafraid to challenge convention and push boundaries. The mini-skirt has become a staple of women’s fashion, and contemporary designers continue to be inspired by her bold and innovative designs.

Quant’s impact on popular culture can also be seen in the countless films, books, and television shows inspired by the Swinging Sixties. The most radical designer and social innovator since Coco Chanel, her designs have become synonymous with the era, and continue to evoke a sense of freedom and optimism that defined the time.

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The History of Drag Balls https://www.historyhit.com/culture/the-history-of-drag-balls/ Fri, 03 Feb 2023 15:17:51 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?p=5197857 Continued]]> Drag balls, long-term pillars of New York LGBTQ+ culture, provided a unique place of refuge for many queer individuals who at the time were shunned by society. Participants took part in competitions, danced and played around with ideas about gender. These spaces were a place of celebration and freedom, where for one night, people could forget their problems in an unforgiving world.

In this article we explore the history of drag ballroom culture, from its post Civil War beginnings to developments brought by the Black and Latinx community to its eventual break into the American mainstream.

Beginnings at Hamilton Lodge No. 710

The story of drag balls reaches further back in time than one may expect. In 1869, the first known example was organised in the Harlem’s Hamilton Lodge No. 710, New York as a masquerade charity gala. Both men and women dressed in clothes usually worn by the opposite sex. Attendance quickly grew as it was seen as a safe space for queer individuals to meet and express themselves. The competition aspect would play an important role, with prizes such as ‘most perfect feminine body displayed by an impersonator’ being given out.

Harassment from authorities were frequent because of numerous anti-crossdressing laws. Matters were not made easier by the moral reform organisation known as the Committee of Fourteen publishing a report in 1916 laying out the ‘scandalous’ behaviour displayed at these drag balls. But this increasing public awareness did not stop people congregating and exploring the art of drag. By the 1920s the ball not only drew in LGBTQ+ attendees, but also heterosexual artists and writers. The event was drawing thousands of spectators, with the 1936 ball boasting an audience of 8,000.

Article published by ‘The New York Age’, 1930

Image Credit: JD Doyle Archives

The emergence of drag houses

It was not only frequent police raids and a generally homophobic society that plagued the drag ball scene of the early 20th century. Even though the event at Hamilton Lodge was a racially mixed, white participants were favoured, while black queens were encouraged to whiten their faces. Class division also payed a role, with middle class homosexuals looking down on the mostly working class participants.

By the 1960s Black and Latinx drag performers splintered off from the existing ball culture, creating their own events in the process. Drag houses started to emerge, which served as a surrogate family for young queer people of colour who were estranged from their families, struggling to get by or living on the streets. The first of those was the House of LaBeija, founded by Crystal LaBeija who served as the ‘mother’. Through the 1970s and 80s a plethora of houses emerged – the House of Dior, the House of Dupree, the House of Corey, the House of Xtravaganza, etc.

Strike a pose

Like the great noble houses of Europe in days gone by, the New York based drag families would throw their own extravagant events to outdo each other and show-off their splendour. In the 1980s categories started taking centre stage at these balls. Participants would show-off their ‘walk’ and display the outfits of their drag persona in the hopes of winning one of the coveted prizes. ‘Realness’ became a popular category, with judges assessing each participants ability to pass as a heterosexual man or woman. They could range from ‘executive realness’ to ‘butch queen realness’ and everything in between.

But it was not all about cross-dressing, some categories allowed men to show off their masculinity and women their femininity.

You cannot cover the topic of drag balls without discussing the history of Voguing. The dance developed as a sort of battle between the participants. In its earliest incarnations during the 1960s it consisted of posing and mimicking the movements seen in fashion magazines. In the next two decades more acrobatic and athletic elements were added. Even though Madonna did not invent the dance, her smash hit ‘Vogue’ helped bring it to a nation wide audience.

During the 1990s the dance style adopted hyper feminine posturing, intricate hand moves and the addition of the famous death drop. Willi Ninja was known as the grandfather of Voguing, with the House of Ninja becoming synonymous with the dance.

The Imperial Court of New York’s annual Night of a Thousand Gowns Coronation Ball

Image Credit: Ronald Kennedy from New Jersey, USA, CC BY-SA 2.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Break into the mainstream

1990 saw the release of the now famous documentary Paris is Burning. It presented the last moments of the ‘Golden Age’ of New York’s drag balls, while also exploring issues relating to race, sexuality, class and gender identity. To say modern drag culture is still influenced by the documentary would be an understatement. Phrases like ‘throwing shade’, ‘you own everything’ or ‘kiki’ were not invented by Paris is Burning, but the documentary has made them a staple in the drag community. The documentary went on to gather great critical success and brought the underground culture to a wider audience.

With RuPauls’s rise to stardom in the 1990s and the success of his TV show Rupaul’s Drag Race, which went on air in 2009, the art of drag has exploded in popularity, becoming part of mainstream culture. Drag balls can not only be found in US cities, but across the world. But it would be a mistake to think that all drag is the same and that all drag balls are similar. Even though the art form has gathered unprecedented popularity, it is not a uniform monolith and there are many subcultures present which are spearheaded by societies most disenfranchised groups.

RuPaul in 2007

Image Credit: David Shankbone, CC BY-SA 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

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‘The Lament for Icarus’ by Herbert James Draper https://www.historyhit.com/culture/the-lament-for-icarus-by-herbert-james-draper/ Wed, 04 Jan 2023 11:43:54 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?post_type=culture_articles&p=5196696 Continued]]> The myth

One of the most enduring tales from Greek mythology is the tragic fate of Icarus, the boy who flew too close to the sun.

Icarus was the son of Daedalus, a master craftsman who had designed the labyrinth of Crete. The labyrinth was built for King Minos to house the Minotaur, a terrifying creature which had the body of a man and the head of a bull. For those unfortunate enemies of Crete, they were locked in the labyrinth and – unable to escape – devoured by the minotaur inside.

However, one man, Theseus (one of Crete’s greatest enemies), managed to escape the deadly trap. King Minos, in his fury, became paranoid. The only man who knew the secrets of the labyrinth was its designer, Daedalus. Had Daedalus helped Theseus escape? Had he shared the labyrinth’s secrets? In what other ways was he betraying his king?

Although Daedalus was innocent of the crime, he was locked up in a soaring tower with his son, Icarus. But the ingenious Daedalus was not content to await his fate in captivity. Instead, he developed an escape plan. Using feathers, threads from blankets, clothes, and beeswax, Daedalus built two sets of wings for him and his son to fly from the tower to safety. It was a risky plan, and Daedalus took care to warn his son of the dangers: “Do not fly too high or too low”, said father to son, “in case the sea’s dampness clogs the wings or the sun’s heat melts their wax”.

The Fall of Icarus, fresco from Pompeii, 40-79 AD

Image Credit: Sofia Suli, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

But Icarus, buoyed by the thrill of human flight, and brazenly confident, didn’t adhere to his father’s instructions. Icarus soared higher and higher, only to seal his own fate. His wings melted in the heat of the Greek sun, he plunged to the sea and drowned. The myth gave rise to the idiom, ‘don’t fly too close to the sun’, a warning against being overly ambitious or greedy.

A Victorian inspiration

This tragic tale has been a rich source of inspiration for writers and artists, most notably Herbert James Draper, an English Classicist painter who worked in the late Victorian era and the first decades of the 20th century.

Draper chose to depict the moment after Icarus’ fall. In his oil painting, ‘The Lament for Icarus’ from 1898, Icarus lies motionless. He is cradled in his enormous, bird-of-paradise-esque wings, and surrounded by lamenting nymphs. The scene is highly dramatic, and typical of late-Victorian romanticism in painting and sculpture.

In the distance, the sun – the cause of Icarus’ downfall – sets, and fills the scene with a golden light. The final glimmers of sunlight highlights the transience of time, and echoes the tragic scene which has just unfolded, marking the end of Icarus’ life. Icarus’ darker tone of tanned skin – compared to the pearly alabaster skin of the nymphs – hints at his recent flight in the sun.

‘The Lament for Icarus’ by Herbert James Draper

Image Credit: Herbert James Draper, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The scene of this naked, dead man, surrounded by mourners is a sure nod to a visual which was common in the Western canon of art, and familiar to Draper’s audience – that of Christ descending from the cross. For example, ‘The Entombment of Christ’ by the Italian painter Caravaggio, bears several uncanny similarities with Draper’s work.

However, whilst Christ’s death is ultimately an uplifting story to inspire faith, Icarus’s death is a moralising tale which demonstrates an epic failure, the tragic result of human folly. To increase the impact and heighten the drama, Draper has taken liberties with the original myth – Icarus still has his angelic wings fully intact (despite it usually retold that the wax melted and left Icarus falling without them).

A modern sensation 

Draper’s work was created at the turn of the century in 1898 and was well received at the time. It was bought from the Royal Academy exhibition through a public fund for purchasing modern art, the Chantrey Bequest. Once more, it was awarded the gold medal at the Exposition Universelle of 1900 in Paris.

The themes in this work were particularly appealing to the late 19th century audiences. Charles Darwin’s publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859 provoked widespread discussion regarding the evolution of humankind, and also pointed debate to a deep and obscure past. The blurred lines between history and myth, and struggles between animal and human nature were of particular interest – themes reflected in Draper’s tragic canvas.

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The Myth of Pandora’s Box https://www.historyhit.com/culture/the-myth-of-pandoras-box/ Wed, 04 Jan 2023 11:12:02 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?post_type=culture_articles&p=5196693 Continued]]> A famous myth 

Pandora is one of the most notorious characters from Greek mythology. She was the first human woman, created by Hephaestus on the instructions of the King of the Gods, Zeus.

As she was created, Pandora was bestowed a unique attribute by each of the Gods. Thus her name has the meaning of ‘the all-endowed’, the ‘all-gifted’ or ‘all-giving’. According to some sources, she was taught needlework and weaving by Athena. The goddess Aphrodite ‘shed grace upon her head and cruel longing and cares that weary the limbs’. Hermes, the herald of the Gods, gave her ‘a shameless mind and a deceitful nature’ as well as the power of rhetoric, with ‘lies and crafty words’. She was given necklaces and clothing by the Charities, and a garland crown by the Horae, the goddesses of the seasons.

However, Pandora’s fame derives from a more sinister episode, connected with Hesiod’s poem Works and Days, dating from around 700 BC. Driven by intense curiosity, Pandora disobeys instructions and opens a forbidden jar. However, her disobedience soon backfires for as the jar is opened, ‘countless plagues’ are released into the world – an array of physical and emotional curses which torment mankind. As Hesiod put it, the earth and sea were now ‘full of evils’.

This story has gone down in time as an idiom. The jar is a representation of any source of great and unexpected troubles, or a gift which seems valuable but turns out to be a curse.

An artistic inspiration

Images of Pandora began to appear on Greek pottery as early as the 5th century BC, and the drama of Pandora’s story has been a rich source of inspiration for later poets, dramatists, painters and sculptors throughout history.

It has, however, diverted somewhat from Hesiod’s original account, as the jar is commonly referred to as a box. This is largely attributed to a mistranslation of ‘pithos‘, as a large storage jar, as ‘box’ (the original being ‘pyxis‘). This was an error by the humanist scholar Erasmus of Rotterdam, who translated Hesiod’s work. However, it has given rise to the idea of ‘Pandora’s Box’ (rather than ‘Pandora’s Jar’).

One artist who was inspired by this episode was Jean Cousin the Elder, a 16th century French painter and engraver. His painting ‘Eva Prima Pandora‘, dating from the 1540s (now in the Louvre) is considered to be his masterpiece. It depicts a nude woman reclining in a natural landscape with a town in the distance.

Jean Cousin the Elder, ‘Eva Prima Pandora’, Louvre, Paris, 1550

Image Credit: Jean Cousin, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

As she rests on a skull, she holds an apple branch in her right hand, and allows a serpent to twist around her left. This is clearly Eve, a symbol of original sin and the fall of mankind. However, Cousin also leaves a sign reading ‘Eva Prima Pandora’, hinting at Pandora’s mistake which also brought sin into the world. Both women are linked with a common theme: their flawed femininity and – as in this painting, womanly seduction – causing the downfall of mankind.

This damning view – which was common in the Renaissance period – faced some rebuttal in the following centuries, suggesting that Pandora’s curiosity was a natural human instinct. Some pointed the blame towards Epimetheus, Pandora’s husband, as the figure responsible for opening the jar. The French poet, Isaac de Benserade, also penned a poem of the tale in 1676, giving a light-hearted edge:

In a jar an odious treasure is
Shut by the gods’ wish:
A gift that’s not everyday,
The owner’s Pandora alone;
And her eyes, this in hand,
Command the best in the land
As she flits near and far;
Prettiness can’t stay
Shut in a jar.
Someone took her eye, he took
A look at what pleased her so
And out came the grief and woe
We won‘t ever be rid of,
For heaven had hidden
That in the jar.

The Pre-Raphaelites

By the 19th century, Pandora’s tragic story had become popular with the Pre-Raphaelite artists, particularly Rossetti. His portrait of Pandora depicts her red-robed with an expressive gaze and her fingers wrapped around the jewelled casket, with the spirits of evil escaping in a cloud of smoke.

‘Pandora’ by John William Waterhouse

Image Credit: John William Waterhouse, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This passionate, seductive depiction is – like the original tale – linked with temptation and sin, for the model is a lover, Jane Morris – the wife of Rossetti’s friend William Morris. Jane’s long sad face, wide eyes and great mass of dark curls was, for the Pre-Raphaelite artists, a vision of ideal beauty.

Another artist who embraced the pre-Raphaelite style, John William Waterhouse, also dedicated a canvas to Pandora in 1896. This was in keeping with his work, which was known for depictions of women from ancient Greek and Arthurian mythology.

In this painting, Pandora is depicted as a beautiful maiden in a mystical woodland scene, kneeling down to have a close view of the box, which is seductively golden and ornate. But this scene of youth, beauty and peace is already disrupted. Although Pandora is unaware, a thin wisp of smoke escapes the box – the evil spirits free to torment mankind forever.

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Ariadne and the Tales of Theseus and the Minotaur https://www.historyhit.com/culture/ariadne-and-the-tales-of-theseus-and-the-minotaur/ Fri, 25 Nov 2022 10:12:13 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?post_type=culture_articles&p=5195320 Continued]]> One of the most famous figures from Greek mythology is the Cretan princess, Ariadne. Although there are many variations of her story, she is most famous for her involvement in the tales of Theseus and the Minotaur.

The myth of the minotaur

The myth began with the death of King Minos of Crete’s son, Androgeus, caused by the city of Athens. As a result, the people of Athens were forced to endure a terrible punishment. Every 7 years, 7 young men and 7 maidens were sent to Crete aboard a ship with black sails. On arrival, they would be forced into a labyrinth which housed a Minotaur – a creature with the head and tail of a bull and the body of a man. Here, the young Athenians would perish, lost in the labyrinth and devoured by the minotaur.

One year, the sacrificial party included the son of King Aegeus, Prince Theseus. He set out on an audacious mission to try and kill the Minotaur. When Theseus arrived on the Cretan shores, he caught the heart of Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos. Determined to save her new lover, Ariadne aided Theseus’ mission, giving him a sword and ball of thread which would enable him to slay the minotaur and retrace his steps through the labyrinth. After successfully doing so, Theseus and Ariadne – who was betraying her father and her country – eloped.

Pasiphaë and the Minotaur, Attic red-figure kylix found at Etruscan Vulci in Italy

Image Credit: Cabinet des Médailles, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

But this romance was not to last long. In many versions of the myth, Theseus soon abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos. With Theseus gone, Ariadne married the god of wine, Dionysus. Together they had several children including Oenopion, Staphylus and Thoas. Ariadne lived happily and faithfully with Dionysus, until she was killed by the hero, Perseus, who turned her to stone by holding up the head of Medusa.

A grand canvas 

The turbulent life of Ariadne has been a source of inspiration for many great artists. In the early 1520s, the Renaissance master, Titian, produced a number of paintings with mythological subjects, one of which featured Ariadne on Naxos. It was created for Alfonso I d’Este, Duke of Ferrara, to be displayed in his magnificent palazzo, the Camerino d’Alabastro.

Based on preliminary drawings by Raphael, the subject matter derived from the texts of the Roman poets, Catullus and Ovid. It depicts the moment Ariadne has been deserted by Theseus, whose ship sails into the distance. She is interrupted by Dionysus (who named her as the Roman equivalent, Bacchus), who leads a procession of revellers in a chariot. The painting communicates Ariadne’s initial fear of Bacchus, who falls in love with her at first site. But it also indicates the years of happiness to come, now Ariadne is paired with an immortal lover: Bacchus raised her to heaven, represented by the constellation above her head.

‘Bacchus and Ariadne’, c. 1520–1523 by Titian (cropped)

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

A Kauffman take

In 1774, a female artist, Angelica Kauffman, dedicated a canvas to Ariadne’s struggle, titled Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus. It shows Ariadne alone, reclining on a low, cushioned bed which is covered with a bright red blanket and adorned with gold tassels. She is draped in sheer white fabric, and her head is turned downward as another arm reaches back towards the sea – towards Theseus’ ship in the distance. This is a vision of despair.

The painting was exhibited in London’s Royal Academy in 1774, alongside two of her other works; Calypso Assenting to the Departure of Ulysses and Penelope Invoking Minerva’s Aid for the Safe Return of Telemachus. All three paintings had a common theme – they all depict women in the absence of a lover or a son.

A surreal vision 

Over two centuries later, Giorgio de Chirico, presented a starkly different interpretation of the moment of Ariadne’s abandonment. De Chirico’s Ariadne is depicted as a sleeping statue in the centre of a desolate public square. It’s believed this evocation of loneliness was a reflection of the artist’s personal life – when he moved to Paris in 1911 he faced a period of isolation and loneliness. Perhaps this dreamlike, unsettling vision with classical themes also reflects a longing for the comfort of his childhood years in Greece.

The striking, enigmatic canvas is typical of de Chirico’s ‘Metaphysical’ style, developed between 1910 and 1917. His canvases are filled with dream-like imagery, cramped interiors and deserted city squares filled with apparently random collections of unrelated objects, and all kinds of curiosities: stopped clocks, faceless mannequins, mysterious shadows and sleeping statues.

This style was particularly suitable for paintings with classical themes, adding to the intermixing and overlapping between myth and reality. It also had a significant influence on modern art, particularly the Surrealist paintings of Salvador Dali and Max Ernst.

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Leda and the Swan https://www.historyhit.com/culture/leda-and-the-swan/ Mon, 14 Nov 2022 17:28:39 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?post_type=culture_articles&p=5194850 Continued]]> An ancient myth 

One of the most disturbing and bizarre tales from Greek mythology is the tale of Leda and the Swan. The king of the Gods, Zeus, transforms into a swan. In this avine form he seduces and rapes Leda, the Queen of Sparta. According to Ovid, Leda was famed for her beautiful black hair and snowy white skin.

The result of Leda and Zeus’ romance was two children, Polydeuces and Helen (who later became Helen of Troy). Leda also bore two children from her husband, King Tyndareus: the twins Castor and Pollux.

Details of the story vary. Sometimes, Zeus is said to have seduced Leda on the very same night she slept with her husband King Tyndareus. As a result, the new babes were hatched from two eggs: from one came Helen and Clytemnestra, and the other came Castor and Pollux. Helen is also sometimes excluded from the story, and described as the daughter of Nemesis, the goddess who personified the disaster that awaited those suffering from the pride of Hubris.

Later interpretation 

For artists and writers, this myth has been a fruitful source of inspiration. It was a common form for Italian Renaissance artists (such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Tintoretto) upon which to display their talent.

After seeing Michelangelo’s version of Leda and the Swan in Rome, the Flemish artist, Peter Paul Rubens, painted two versions of the subject in 1601 and 1602. Rubens’s 1601 Leda was clearly modelled on that of Michelangelo’s. Everything from the placement of Leda’s twisting body entangled with the swan, to the detail of her fingers mirrors the work of his Italian forebear.

However, Rubens did make alterations to Michelangelo’s design. Ruben’s depiction of the female form is much softer: her body is extremely curvaceous, her skin is alabaster, her limbs are in proportion and her golden hair is flowing.

Ruben’s second attempt also saw further developments. In his first work, the brushstrokes are loose, the colours are muted and the drapes are green. In the second painting, the detailing is sharper, the colours are vibrant, the lighting is more dramatic and Leda’s hairstyle is highly ornamental. Her skin is alabaster, tinted with pink and peachy tones which contrast with the stark white of the swan’s feathers. She is intimately entwined with the swan – its beak almost touching her lips and its head leaning gently against her naked breast.

‘Leda and the Swan’, a 16th-century copy after a lost painting by Michelangelo

Image Credit: After Michelangelo, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This second version is more typical of the Baroque style and the ‘Rubenesque’ figure which would become the artist’s trademark. A sense of movement (another common Baroque theme) is conveyed by the swan’s wings flung open, as if he has just flown into Leda’s arms.

Painters and poets

This peculiar story was not unusual in Greek mythology. Zeus was said to have seduced many women in various guises: for Europa he transformed into a bull, for Antiope a satyr, for Danae a shower of gold. All of which were popular subjects in Renaissance and Baroque artworks, and many of which were heavily erotic. For example, in Rubens’ Leda, she is shown fully nude, with the swan caressing her most intimate areas.

The story was also the inspiration for one of the greatest poets of the 20th century, William Butler Yeats. His sonnet was composed in 1923, beginning:

“A sudden blow: the great wings beating still
Above the staggering girl, her thighs caressed
By the dark webs, her nape caught in his bill,
He holds her helpless breast upon his breast.

How can those terrified vague fingers push
The feathered glory from her loosening thighs?
And how can body, laid in that white rush,
But feel the strange heart beating where it lies?”

‘Leda and the Swan’ by Correggio

Image Credit: Antonio da Correggio, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The second half of Yeats’ poem explores the wider implications of this event. The child born from Leda and Zeus was Helen. She Helen of Troy, the woman whose beauty sparked the outbreak of the Trojan War. Here Yeats explores hot the tales of mythology merge with historical truth:

“A shudder in the loins engenders there
The broken wall, the burning roof and tower
And Agamemnon dead.
Being so caught up,
So mastered by the brute blood of the air,
Did she put on his knowledge with his power
Before the indifferent beak could let her drop?”

Leda and the Swan remains one of the most popular myths from the Greek world. Although it is a disturbing tale, its sinister surrealism provides an endless source of intrigue and inspiration for some of the most talented artists and creatives in history.

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Father of Impressionism: Who Was Camille Pissarro? https://www.historyhit.com/culture/father-of-impressionism-who-was-camille-pissarro/ Tue, 08 Nov 2022 11:30:29 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?p=5182732 Continued]]> Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) was a Danish-French Impressionist painter who is regarded by many as the father of Impressionism. While known for his important contributions to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, equally vital was his father-like standing amongst his fellow painters such as Cézanne, Seurat, Gauguin and van Gogh.

Born in the Caribbean, Pissarro lived in and painted a wide variety of places over the course of his life. Though his contributions to art were only first recognised towards the end of his life, today his legacy is both familial – the esteemed Pissarro family of painters are still active today – and international, with his art being both admired in galleries and studied academically.

Who was Camille Pissarro?

1. He was born in the Caribbean

Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 to Frederick Abraham Gabriel Pissarro, a merchant, and Rachel Manzano-Pomié on the island of St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but then in the Danish West Indies).

When Pissarro was 12, his father sent him to the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris, where he first developed an appreciation of the French art masters.

2. He was determined to become an artist

When a 17-year-old Pissarro returned to St. Thomas, his father had him work in his business as a port clerk. When he turned 21, he met visiting painter Fritz Melbye and sailed with him to Venezuela in 1852, where, in Caracas, he drew landscapes, village scenes and sketches.

Jalais Hill, Pontoise is an Impressionist Oil on Canvas Painting created by Camille Pissarro in 1867

Image Credit: Image courtesy of 'Pissarro: Father of Impressionism' movie, released 24 May 2022

When he returned to St. Thomas in 1854, his parents realised their son was determined to be a painter. In 1855, Pissarro left for Paris.

3. He was critical of the art industry in Paris

In Paris, Pissarro worked as an assistant to Danish painter Anton Melbye. He also enrolled in classes taught by masters, but eventually found the latter ‘stifling’. As a result, he received tuition from Corot and started spending a lot of time painting ‘picturesque’ rural areas.

He became disillusioned with the Paris Salon – the annual exhibit of the city’s Académie des Beaux-Arts which was then hailed as the pinnacle of the Western art world. He would go on to successfully persuade others that it was unfair and elitist.

4. Soldiers destroyed all but a handful of his paintings

When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870-1871, Pissarro was unable to join the army since he only had Danish nationality. He moved his family to a village close to London. He met Monet in London, where the pair were inspired by the works of British artists such as Constable and Turner.

When Pissarro returned to France after the war, he discovered that of the 1,500 paintings he had made over 20 years, only 40 remained, since the rest had been damaged or destroyed by soldiers who used them as floor mats outside to keep their boots clean.

5. He founded a collective of artists

In 1874, Pissarro founded an artists’ co-operative as an alternative to the Salon. The same year, the group held their first exhibition in Paris, which later became known as the first Impressionist show. Among those who showed their work were Monet, Renoir, Sisley, Cézanne, Degas and Morisot.

The pea stakers by Camille Pissarro, 1890

Image Credit: Image courtesy of 'Pissarro: Father of Impressionism' movie, released 24 May 2022

As a collective, the Impressionist artists wanted to record the modern world around them by capturing the changeable nature of light and colour. They focused on texture, tone and high-keyed colour above traditional compositions.

6. He was unsuccessful for much of his career

The initial public response to the first Impressionist exhibition was lukewarm, and Pissarro was deeply affected. He was also experiencing personal hardship at the time: his nine-year-old daughter Jeanne had died just a week before the exhibition opened.

Subsequent shows were no more popular, and by the time of the fourth group show in 1879, Renoir, Sisley and Cézanne had withdrawn, followed by Monet a year later. In spite of this, Pissarro remained adamant that he would not return to the Salon.

7. He became interested in Neo-Impressionism

In 1884, Pissarro moved to the hamlet of Eragny. There, he met young avant-garde artists Seurat and Signac, and became a convert to their Neo-Impressionistic style, which emphasised applying paint to the canvas in dots of contrasting pigments. However, he soon moved away from the Neo-Impressionistic style.

8. Six of his eight children became artists

In 1860, he started a relationship with his mother’s maid, Julie Vellay, who he married and had eight children with. Six became painters. Even today, the Pissarro family are heavily involved in the arts: for instance, Pissarro’s great-grandson Joachim Pissarro became Head Curator of Drawing and Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, while his great-granddaughter Lélia Pissarro has had her work exhibited alongside him.

9. By the end of his life, he was well-respected

Pissarro died on 13 November 1903, of sepsis. By the end of his life, he was beginning to gain critical recognition and praise, and over the course of the 20th century he was properly recognised as a key figure in Impressionism. He remains the only artist to have had his work exhibited at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions, and his contribution to the art world is immeasurable.

Woman Bathing Her Feet in a Brook by Camille Pissarro, 1894 – 1895

Image Credit: Image courtesy of 'Pissarro: Father of Impressionism' movie, released 24 May 2022

10. Many of his paintings were looted by the Nazis in the 1930s

In the 1930s, many Jewish owners of fine art masterpieces had their collections sold off or seized under the Nazi regime. Several of Pissarro’s paintings were sold to finance the Nazi war effort, sent to Hitler’s personal museum or traded by officials for personal gain. Many have still not been recovered by the original owners.

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British Stamps: A History in Pictures https://www.historyhit.com/culture/british-stamps-a-history-in-pictures/ Tue, 08 Nov 2022 11:00:50 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?p=5190176 Continued]]> King Henry VIII is best remembered for his wide ranging religious reforms and his six wives, but he was also responsible for founding the Royal Mail in 1516. At the time, letters were sometimes marked with notations such as ‘Haste. Post Haste’ to signify levels of urgency.

Originally, the postal service was not available to the public, though that changed during the reign of King Charles I in 1635. Over the following 200 years, a complicated, confusing and expensive system of tariffs emerged. It was customary to pay for a letter on delivery, with the final price dependent on the distance travelled and number of sheets written. To solve this growing issue, the Royal Mail implemented postal stamps in 1840, a simple yet effective solution conceived of by Sir Rowland Hill.

The first postal stamps set the groundwork for the coming decades, since their design always showcased the current monarch. These became known as ‘definitives’. From time to time, commemorative stamps that featured more varied artwork on them were released. Since Britain was the first country to issue postal stamps, the name of the country is absent on them to this day. Today, stamps are an integral part of everyday life.

Read on for more on the fascinating history of British stamps in pictures.

Victorian Era

First world postal stamp ever issued: the Penny Black, Great Britain, 1840

Image Credit: gary718 / Shutterstock.com

On 6 May 1840, the worlds first adhesive postage stamp – the Penny Black – was issued by the United Kingdom. The original black colour was quickly found to be impractical, since any cancellation mark would be hard to see. Future stamps were thus issued in a brick-red colour.

An old Victorian penny red stamp with the portrait of Queen Victoria, circa 1858

Image Credit: Andy Lidstone / Shutterstock.com

The portrait of Queen Victoria remained constant on stamps throughout her reign in Britain, though there are varied depictions of the monarch on different Commonwealth stamps. Some of these were quite inaccurate and sometimes even unflattering.

A 1 penny lilac postage stamp showing the portrait of Queen Victoria, 1881

Image Credit: World of Stamps / Shutterstock.com

One of the most commonly used stamps was the Penny Lilac, first issued in 1881. In 20 years, over 33 billion were printed and released to the public.

Early 20th Century

A 1902 5 shilling carmine-rose postage stamp showing the portrait of King Edward VII

Image Credit: World of Stamps / Shutterstock.com

With the death of Queen Victoria and the ascendance of King Edward VII, new stamps were needed. The new designs did not differ too much from earlier ones, with the King’s side profile remaining the main feature. During the 1910s, chalk-surfaced paper was introduced, making it more difficult to remove a postmark without damaging the stamp.

Stamp with the side profile of King George V, circa 1912 to 1924

Image Credit: Andy Lidstone / Shutterstock.com

The reign of King George V saw the arrival of the first commemorative stamps to celebrate the opening of the British Empire Exhibition in 1924.

Stamp for the British Empire Exhibition in 1924 (edited)

Image Credit: UK Post Office, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Following the death of the King in 1936, Edward VIII took over the royal duties for almost a year before his abdication in December the same year. Only four sets of postage stamps were issued during his short reign.

An English One Pence Red used postage stamp showing the portrait of King Edward VIII, circa 1936 

Image Credit: Andy Lidstone / Shutterstock.com

King George VI

Owing to the abdication, the production of commemorative stamps to celebrate the crowning of Edward VIII had to be halted immediately. Against a very tight deadline, the Royal Mail quickly began coming up with designs for the new King’s stamp.

A one and half pence purple-brown postage stamp showing portraits of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. 1937

Image Credit: World of Stamps / Shutterstock.com

To celebrate 100 years since the release of the Penny Black, a commemorative stamp was released depicting Queen Victoria together with King George VI. The idea was originally abandoned with the outbreak of World War Two, but it was quickly resumed.

British stamp depicting Queen Victoria and King George VI to commemorate 100 years of postal stamps. 1940

Image Credit: Steve Mann / Shutterstock.com

The Channel Islands were under German occupation for most of the war. Their liberation took place in 1945, and a special stamp was released to commemorate this historic moment and to revitalise the tourism sectors of Guernsey and Jersey.

A vintage British postage stamp commemorating the liberation of the Channel Islands after the Second World War, circa 1948

Image Credit: chrisdorney / Shutterstock.com

Queen Elizabeth II

When Elizabeth became the head of state following her father’s death in 1952, a collection of stamps based on a portrait taken by photographer Dorothy Wilding were released. These ‘Wilding issues’ were produced until 1967.

A stamp printed in Great Britain showing a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, circa 1952

Image Credit: neftali / Shutterstock.com

Following 1967, the highly popular ‘Machin series’ were launched. For the next five decades they remained in production, becoming some of the most used stamps in history. As with many previous entries on our list, they were produced in many different colours.

Three stamps showing the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II

Image Credit: Taigi; Andy Lidstone / Shutterstock.com

In 1989, the Royal Mail stopped issuing stamps with a specific value on them. Instead they opted to have first and second class ones to avoid replacing them every time postage rates changed. The reign of the Queen also saw a new diversity of imagery on commemorative British stamps, showcasing other members of the Royal Family, ships, historical figures and more.

A British postage stamp from 2005

Image Credit: Taigi / Shutterstock.com

Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II in 2022, a newly-designed stamp marking King Charles III’s reign has been on sale since 10 November 2022.

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10 Facts About French Artist Henri Rousseau https://www.historyhit.com/culture/facts-about-french-artist-henri-rousseau/ Tue, 08 Nov 2022 10:00:28 +0000 https://www.historyhit.com/?p=5187674 Continued]]> Ridiculed in life yet revered in death, French artist Henri Rousseau was one of the most influential post-impressionist painters of the 20th century, holding rank amongst the likes Cézanne, Gauguin, and Van Gogh.

A self-taught genius, Rousseau’s captivating jungle landscapes transported onlookers – whether they liked it or not – to places and times far removed from the ordinary, and proved that true artistry was not just a pursuit of the educated elite.

Here are 10 facts about the incredible Henri Rousseau:

1. He was born into poverty in France

Henri Rousseau was born in 1844 in the town of Laval in western France. His father was a tinsmith, and the young Rousseau was required to work with him as a child to make ends meet.

He studied at Laval High School as a day student, yet when his family were thrown out of their home due to debt he was forced to board there for a time. Rousseau was reportedly mediocre in many of his subjects, yet notably won prizes for drawing and music.

2. He spent much of his life working as a toll collector

Following his father’s death in 1868, Rousseau moved to Paris to look for work in order to support his widowed mother.

He began working as a government employee, then was appointed as a tax collector at the entrance to the city in 1871. This would later earn him the playful nickname by his friends: ‘Le Douanier’ (the customs officer).

3. He was a self-taught artist

Whilst earning a living as a toll collector, Rousseau taught himself to paint in his spare time, and wandered around the art museums of Paris copying out the artwork he saw there.

Though he lacked a formal art education, it was perhaps this unbridled creativity that gave Rousseau his unique style of ‘naive art’, with his bright colours, surrealism and simple solid lines breaking the boundaries what was considered ‘traditional’.

‘View of the Bridge in Sevres and the Hills of Clamart, Saint-Cloud and Bellevue with biplane, balloon and dirigible’, 1908, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts (cropped)

Image Credit: Henri Rousseau, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

4. His art was exhibited regularly in Paris

From 1886, Rousseau’s work was shown at the Salon des Indépendants in their annual and un-juried exhibitions. He received his first serious review five years later, after his Tiger in a Tropical Storm (Surprised!) was shown there.

The young Swiss artist Félix Vallotton wrote of the striking painting: ‘His tiger surprising its prey ought not to be missed; it’s the alpha and omega of painting.’ Despite this glowing review, it would be 7 years until Rousseau would again paint the vivid jungle imagery seen in his Tiger.

5. He is most famous for his striking jungle paintings

Rousseau would come to paint around 25 of his jungle paintings, each depicting lush dreamlike worlds in which giant plants loomed across the canvas. In later years, these striking images earned Rousseau artistic notoriety.

The tiger itself appeared in at least three more paintings, while lions, monkeys, birds, snakes and humans also lurked amongst the foliage.

‘Tiger in a Tropical Storm (Surprised!)’ (1891) was the first of many jungle scenes for which Rousseau is best known (cropped)

Image Credit: Henri Rousseau, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

6. He never left France

Despite his legacy being firmly rooted in his dreamlike jungle scenes, Rousseau never left France to see them for himself.

His inspiration instead came from the plants and curious taxidermy of Paris’ botanical gardens and museums, particularly the Jardin des Plantes. Describing his visits there, he once said: ‘When I go into the glass houses and I see the strange plants of exotic lands, it seems to me that I enter into a dream.’

7. He was ridiculed for his work

Members of Paris’ conservative artistic elite neither understood nor appreciated Rousseau’s work, often commenting that he painted like a child.

In one showing at the Salon d’Automne in 1905, his work was featured amongst the boldly coloured canvasses of artists such as Matisse, Derain and Marquet. The critic Louis Vauxcelles disparaged the artists as ‘fauves’ (wild beasts), while critic Camille Mauclair wrote that ‘A pot of paint has been flung in the face of the public.’

8. He found acceptance amongst his contemporaries

Though belittled by the artistic establishment, Rousseau’s work was admired by his contemporaries. When in 1893, aged 49, he retired as a tax collector to focus on his art, he was at last introduced to many among Paris’ avant-garde artistic circles.

Around this time, a young Pablo Picasso happened upon a painting by Rousseau being sold as a canvas to be painted over. He was so impressed by the work that he sought out a meeting with its creator.

9. Picasso held an illustrious banquet in Rousseau’s honour

In 1908, Picasso held a fabulous banquet in Rousseau’s honour at his studio at Le Bataeu-Lavoir, dubbed Le Banquet Rousseau.

Dubbed as ‘one of the most notable social events of the twentieth century’ by American poet John Malcolm Brinnin, the banquet gathered together a group of revolutionary artists who were shunned by the establishment, but revelled in each other’s company nonetheless. Maurice Raynal later wrote of the night: ‘…here in these shadowy corridors lived the true worshippers of fire.’

10. He died in 1910

Rousseau painted his final work, titled The Dream, in March 1910. That same month, he suffered a phlegmon in his leg, and by the time he was admitted to hospital in August it had become gangrenous.

Following an operation, he died of a blood clot in Paris on 2 September 1910, aged 66 years old. At his funeral, seven friends solemnly stood at his grave, including French poet Guillaume Apollinaire, who wrote in his epitaph:

Let our luggage pass duty free through the gates of heaven.
We will bring you brushes paints and canvas.
That you may spend your sacred leisure in the light and Truth of Painting.

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The 8 Best Satires by James Gillray https://www.historyhit.com/culture/best-satires-by-james-gillray/ Tue, 08 Nov 2022 09:57:10 +0000 http://histohit.local/best-satires-by-james-gillray/ Continued]]> Gillray is widely considered the ‘father of modern political cartoon’, following naturally on from Hogarth half a century earlier, who was the ‘grandfather’.

Working between 1780-1810, his surrealist imagery and biting wit made him the most successful satirist of his day, producing a quality of work yet to be surpassed.

He mocked political squabbles with scatological humour and burlesqued the haut monde with a striking ability for vengeance.

His prints were chuckled at by Queen Charlotte during breakfast (until they became too vulgar), hoarded by the filthy minded Prince Regent (later George IV), feared by Napoleon (who claimed Gillray was more powerful than a dozen generals), and adored so much by the general public that fights broke out as new prints were displayed in Hannah Humphreys’ printshop window.

Gillray produced over 1,000 political and social satires. Here are eight of the best.

1. A Voluptuary under the horrors of Digestion (1792)

This etching by Gillray attacks the reckless indulgence of the Prince of Wales (later George IV), offering a nod to his nickname ‘The Prince of Whales’.

Dominated by his enormous bloated belly, which a single waistcoat button struggles to contain, his languid greed is revealed by decanters of port and brandy, the remains of a huge joint of meat, empty wine bottles rolling around under the table, and a coat of arms containing a knife and fork.

Behind the chair, an overflowing chamber pot pins up a host of unpaid bills. In the foreground, a dice-box offers a nod to his gambling addiction, and a medicinal bottle on the shelf is labelled ‘Drops for a Stinking Breath’.

‘A Voluptuary under the horrors of Digestion’ (1792). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

2. Britannia between Scylla and Charybdis (1793)

Britannia between Scylla and Charybdis was published in April 1793, three months after the execution of the French King, Louis XVI, and two months after France declared war on Britain. In the print, the British Prime Minister, William Pitt, steers a boat representing the constitution.

Carrying the precious cargo of Britannia, Pitt navigates between two maritime hazards of Homeric mythology, representing ‘the whirlpool of arbitrary power’ and ‘the rock of democracy’. Behind him, he is closely eyed by the deadly, anti-constitutional sharks of the Foxite opposition.

They head towards a gloomy island named the ‘Haven of Public Happiness’.

Gillray’s print reflected the British philosophical debates which dominated the 1790s, as the French Revolution played out across the channel. Gillray’s conclusion is that in times of uncertainty and polarisation, a ‘middle way’ must save the constitution.

‘Britannia between Scylla and Charybdis’ (1793). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

3. Uncorking Old Sherry (1805)

In Uncorking Old Sherry, Gillray imagines the House of Commons as a wine cellar, with the Prime Minister examining his supplies of opposition MPs.

From the bottle in Pitt’s hand explodes a plethora of words: ‘Bouncings’, ‘Growlings’, ‘Fibs! Fibs! Fibs’, ‘Abuse’, ‘Abuse’, ‘Damn’d Fibs’, ‘Invectives’, ‘Old Puns’, ‘Groans of Disappointment’, ‘Stolen Jests’, ‘Invectives’, ‘lame Puns’ – a dig at a recent speech by Sheridan, the chap looking furiously up at Pitt from inside the bottle.

Whilst Pitt, the Prime Minister, was aloof, antisocial and dull, the leader of the opposition could not have been more different. Charles James Fox, the ruddy face in the bottle labelled ‘True French Wine’, was a ruffian who womanised, drank to excess and often turned up to the Commons straight from a night of wild revelry.

‘Uncorking Old Sherry’ (1805). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

4. The Plumb-pudding in danger – or – State Epicures taking un Petit Souper (1805)

This print is so often repeated it is more famous than Gillray himself. The modern cartoonist Martin Rowson described it as ‘probably the most famous political cartoon of all time … stolen over and over and over again by cartoonists ever since’. Thatcher, Cameron, May, Johnson and Trump have all been demonised through Gillray’s design.

In the print, Pitt and Napoleon are seated at a dining table, carving up a plum pudding representing a map of the world. Pitt wears a red regimental uniform of the British army, and his fork resembles a three-pronged trident, a reference to British naval strength.

Napoleon, the ‘little corporal’, is smaller and stockier. He wears the blue coat of the Imperial French Army and the enormous plume in his hat makes mockery of his tiny stature.

Whilst Pitt takes a huge chunk of pudding marked ‘ocean’ and ‘West Indies’, Napoleon’s smaller portion contains most of Europe, including Hanover, the home of the British monarchs.

‘The Plumb-pudding in danger’ (1805). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

5. Advantages of Wearing Muslin Dresses! (1804)

It was a particular joy of Gillray to satirise the fashions and social mores of modern society. In Advantages of Wearing Muslin Dresses!, a fashionable muslin dress catches fire on a red-hot poker, causing uproar as a cat flees and a waiter drops his tray.

Gillray pokes fun at serious conventions surrounding taking afternoon tea, a drink which had become more popular than coffee, chocolate and alcohol due to the British East India Company’s monopoly over the tea industry in England.

‘Advantages of Wearing Muslin Dresses’ (1802). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

6. Monstrous Craws, at a New Coalition Feast (1787)

King George III (dressed as an old woman), Queen Charlotte and the Prince of Wales sit around a bowl of guineas. They greedily guzzle coins which are immediately collected by the bizarre, pelican-like bags attached to their necks. The bowl is inscribed ‘John Bull’s Blood’.

This image of gluttony offered a critique of the royal demands on the public purse in 1787. Parliament had recently granted the Prince £161,000 to pay off debts (over £10 million in today’s money) and had raised his annual income to £60,000.

‘Monstrous Craws, at a New Coalition Feast’ (1787). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

7. A Sphere, Projecting Against a Plane (1792)

In this print, Gillray brings together two of his favourite subjects from social and political satires.

Pitt, a politician, was a lanky, frugal workaholic. In contrast, the Honourable Albinia Hobart, later Countess of Buckinghamshire, was a heavily obese, flamboyant amateur thespian and avid supporter of Pitt’s political rival, Charles James Fox.

Referencing a mathematical equation of Euclid, which is printed below, Pitt represents a plane, and Mrs Hobart, a sphere. Trapped in this circular anatomy, she must move on a trolley since rolling would be considered crude amongst members of high society.

‘A sphere, projecting against a plane’ (1792). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

8. The King of Brobdingnag, and Gulliver (1803)

George III inspects a tiny Napoleon through a spy-glass. He exclaims:

‘My little friend Grildrig, you have made a most admirable panegyric upon Yourself and Country, but from what I can gather from your own relation & the answers I have with much pains wringed & extorted from you, I cannot but conclude you to be one of the most pernicious, little odious reptiles, that nature ever suffer’d to crawl upon the surface of the Earth.’

When shown this print, the King was reported to have said, ‘Quite wrong, quite wrong, no bag [the King’s wig] with uniform!’

Note Gillray’s delight in jesting about Napoleon’s short stature. Upon his death, Napoleon actually measured an average height of 5’ 6’’.

‘The King of Brobdingnag, and Gulliver’ (1803). Image credit: James Gillray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: James Gillray, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

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