Following William’s reforms the Catholic Church’s power in England was solidified, reaching its zenith during the High Medieval period.

Here are 10 facts about the Church in the High Middle Ages:

1. William’s church reforms aided his conquest

Within a decade of William’s invasion in September 1066 nearly all of England’s Anglo-Saxon bishops had been replaced by Normans.

The Church was wealthy and influential, and William could not afford to have disloyal men filling its offices. Bishoprics were also useful ways of rewarding those who had served him against Harold Godwinson and later Anglo-Saxon rebellions.

Even native saints came under attack, as churches were steadily rededicated to Norman favourites.

2. England experienced a monastic revival

Existing English monasteries, such as Muchelney Abbey in Somerset, were reformed on Norman lines, and many new monasteries were established.

Most of these monasteries, like the prestigious Battle Abbey near Hastings, belonged to Benedictine monks, which was initially the only religious order in England.

Devout and rich Normans built new monasteries all over the country. Richard de Clare, the Norman nobleman who held Tonbridge Castle, established the impressive Tonbridge Priory in 1124.

3. The monastic life appealed to a range of people

Those who embraced it included aristocrats, knights and illiterate peasants, who were permitted to join the Cistercian order as ‘lay brothers’

At Finchdale Priory, there was even a retired ‘pirate’ (who was more likely a merchant) called St Godric. He started his life as a pedlar, then became a sailor and entrepreneur, before entering Finchdale Priory as a hermit for 60 years. So wide was his renown as a holy man that Thomas Beckett and Pope Alexander II reportedly sought his advice.

4. Cistercian monks built very remote monasteries

These so-called ‘White Monks’ (named after the colour of their habits) established monasteries ‘far from the haunts of men’, as their rules demanded. Their monasteries included Rievaulx Abbey, North Yorkshire, which by the 1160s housed 650 Cistercians.

Rievaulx Abbey. Image credit: Michael D Beckwith / CC.

The severity of the early Cistercian architecture reflects the austereness of their lives. Their rule emphasised the importance of manual labour and self-sufficiency, so Cistercians were experts in agriculture and brewery.

5. The Crusades brought military orders

Following the First Crusade in 1095 military orders sprang up, such as the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller, who were crusading orders with English property.

Though ultimately unsuccessful in their goal of wrestling Jerusalem back from its Islamic rulers, the Crusades did have a profound impact on England. They brought changes to architecture, health and science as crusaders returned to England with new ideas from Europe and the Middle East.

The crusading orders did not just serve a military purpose. The Knights Hospitaller had charitable aims which included aiding the poor and sick.

6. Even peasants became Crusaders

Crusaders weren’t just knights and wealthy lords. In 1096, Peter the Hermit recruited paupers from England, France and Flanders to join him on a People’s Crusade.

Nearly 100,000 men, women and children marched from western Europe towards the Holy Land. While crossing Germany, they started the Rhineland Massacres, attacks against Jews which resulted in the deaths of thousands.

The People’s Crusade was eventually crushed at the Battle of Civetot in Turkey, when Muslim forces ambushed the peasant army.

7. People paid money to secure passage to heaven

In the High Medieval period, it was common for the wealthy to bequeath money for a priest to pray for them after death. It was hoped that prayer might shorten their time in Purgatory, where souls not condemned to Hell were purged of their sins until they were pure enough to ascend to Heaven.

The wealthy might also endow chantry chapels, such as the Percy Chantry at Tynemouth Priory in Tyne and Wear. Chantry priests would solely pray for the salvation of these benefactors and their relations.

Moreover, when purchasing ‘indulgences’ from the Church, Catholics paid large sums to ensure their time in purgatory would be reduced. Frequent abuses led this practice to be banned in 1567.

‘An Angel Frees the Souls of Purgatory’, Ludovico Carracci. Image credit: Public Domain.

8. Pilgrimages also brought you salvation

Cures for poor health or personal salvation might be obtained by making a pilgrimage to a holy site. The most popular English pilgrimage site was Canterbury Cathedral, where Saint Thomas Becket was martyred in 1170. Pilgrims from all over Europe would travel to see his shrine there.

There were many other shrines, each with unique features: Hailes Abbey in Gloucestershire boasted a phial of ‘Christ’s blood’.

St Winefride’s Well in Wales is supposedly the oldest pilgrimage site in Britain. Its healing waters are said to cause miraculous cures, and monarchs from Richard I to Queen Victoria have visited the site.

9. The parish church was the heart of religious life

At the local parish church ordinary people heard Mass every Sunday and celebrated the many saints’ days and religious festivals. The Church interwove religion into everyday life and the cycles of the agricultural year.

Church rituals marked life events from cradle to grave, and all members of the parish would look to the church for guidance.

The local priest would also hear confessions from his parishioners, and give advice as to how they might obtain forgiveness from God. This placed him in a unique position of power in the community.

10. Religious tolerance was not common

Those who disputed the Church’s teaching were considered enemies of the faith or heretics.

For example, during anti-Semitic riots in 1190 Yorkshire Jews were forced to take refuge from a violent mob in York Castle’s keep, where Clifford’s Tower now stands.

Clifford’s Tower, York. Image credit: Steven Fruitsmaak / CC.

Torn between a painful death or being forcibly baptised and ‘converted’, many decided to take their own lives. The father of each family killed his wife and children before taking his own life.

Jews were eventually expelled from England in 1290 by King Edward I.

In the year 66 the Roman province of Judaea revolted against Roman rule. Long after the Romans defeated the Jewish armies and captured Jerusalem, the fortress of Masada held out as the last rebel stronghold against the Roman legions.

The origins of Masada Fortress

Used as a defensive position since the early 1st century BC, Masada’s unique potential was exploited by Herod the Great, a Judaean king allied to Rome. Herod is well known for his appearance in the Gospel of Matthew, but his actions are better understood through the Jewish historian Josephus and Herod’s archaeological legacy.

In the 30s BC Herod built a huge fortified palace on the tabletop-mountain. In places Masada’s cliffs are over 1,300 feet high, which Herod knew would make it an ideal place of refuge. He added to the plateau’s natural defences a 13 foot wall around its perimeter, reinforced with towers and gatehouses.

Herod’s new fortress could only be reached by a narrow path, the ‘Snake Trail’, which wound up the eastern side of the cliffs. This path was so narrow that two men could not climb it abreast. With its high walls and narrow entrance, Masada was impregnable to traditional military attacks.

Herod’s palace at Masada. Image Credit: Andrew Shiva / CC.

Herod had discovered the perfect place from which to rule Judaea and to entertain important Roman guests. In addition to the fortifications, a luxury three-tiered palace complex, Roman baths, and even a swimming pool were added for Herod and Roman ambassadors to enjoy.

The First Jewish-Roman War

Six decades after Herod’s death, Judaea had become a part of the Roman empire. After a series of abuses by the Emperor Nero‘s governors, the Jewish people rose up against their oppressors in the year 66 AD.

The war between the Jews and the Romans was long and bitter. Initially, the Jews were successful, but soon a Roman general called Vespasian was despatched to take command of the legions. After Vespasian won a series of victories, Masada’s famous historian Josephus (then a commander of the Jewish rebels) was captured by the Romans.

While in captivity, Josephus met with his captor Vespasian. The historian correctly predicted that Vespasian would one day become emperor of Rome. This chance encounter enabled Josephus to reside in Vespasian’s house in Rome after the war, where he wrote his history of the First Jewish War using both his own knowledge and that of the Roman generals.

Vespasian soon left his son, Titus, to finish the campaign against the Jews and began preparing to seize power in Rome. In 70 Titus finally captured the Jewish capital of Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. The backbone of the Jewish resistance was now broken.

The Sicarii’s last stand

In 66, at the start of the war, an extremist group of Jewish rebels called the Sicarii had captured Masada from its Roman garrison by tricking the soldiers into allowing them inside the fortress. The Sicarii were fundamentalists, and were even known to attack moderate Jews who did not agree with their tactics.

By the year 70 AD Jerusalem was under Roman occupation and Masada became the final stronghold of Jewish resistance. The Sicarii were only 960 strong, and included the small force’s elderly relatives, wives and children.

During their years in the fortress the Sicarii turned Herod’s huge palace complex into a unique community. The remains of the building which they transformed into a synagogue have been discovered, and they dug out Herod’s swimming pool to allow many people to bathe at one time.

Roman fort at the foot of Masada. Image Credit: Sarah Murray / CC.

They had no shortage of supplies as the Roman garrison had kept the fortress well-stocked with food and water. To this day one can stand in the massive underground caverns which Herod, the Romans and the Sicarii all used to stored thousands of litres of water.

The Siege of Masada (72 AD)

In the year 72 AD the Roman governor of Judaea Lucius Flavius Silva finally decided to attack Masada. He brought a Roman legion, auxiliaries and Jewish prisoners of war, in total numbering over 10,000 men to attack the fortress.

On arriving, Silva had his legionaries build a wall around the entire plateau. Then, knowing that they could not assault the Snake Trail, Silva ordered his men to build a massive siege ramp up the western side of the cliffs.

The construction of this ramp involved moving thousands of tons of stone and earth; all the while, Masada’s defenders fired projectiles onto those labouring below. The project took several months, but at last the Romans completed the ramp and pushed a huge siege tower (with its own battering ram) up to the walls.

Roman siege ramp at Masada. Image Credit: Israel Tourism / CC.

‘A glorious death’

When the Romans broke down the wall they expected to meet fierce resistance. Instead, the citadel was eerily silent. The Jewish defenders, knowing that the Romans were about to capture and enslave them, had taken drastic action.

After a powerful speech by the Sicarii leader, Eleazar, the Sicarii had committed mass suicide. Eleazar had convinced his supporters that it was more admirable to take their own lives than face torture, enslavement or death at the hands of the Romans. In a shocking display of fanaticism, the Sicarii chose several men by lot to kill the others, then these men took their own lives.

Only two women and five children survived. When the Romans found them they relayed what had happened to their captors. In addition to killing themselves, the Sicarii had burnt all of their stores to prevent the Roman army making use of them. It was an extreme and defiant statement against Roman power.

Masada’s legacy

The physical ruins of Masada can be visited to this day. The fortress stands as a great testimony to Israel’s historic heritage. New archaeological finds, like osctraca (pottery shards) used for choosing lots, are found each year.

Masada’s place in the Israeli national consciousness is even more important. The sacrifice of the Sicarii is celebrated by many as a symbol of Jewish bravery; others view it as a failure to compromise or negotiate.

To this day, members of the Israel Defence Force (IDF) can complete their swearing-in ceremony on top of the plateau. The IDF oath ends with the poignant declaration: “Masada shall not fall again”.

Some of its emperors fought to regain Rome’s former glory, but many simply oversaw the continual collapse of the ‘eternal city’ and its empire. From opportunist generals to little boys, these men presided over one of the most important events in western history: the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.

Here are the Western Roman Emperors from the Sack of Rome to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Honorius (23 January 393 – 25 August 423)

Honorius was appointed Western Roman Emperor as a child. In his early reign he was protected by his father-in-law Stilicho, a bold general who kept the barbarians threatening Rome at bay. The great historian of the late Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon, called Stilicho ‘the last of the Romans’ on account of his virtue.

In 408 Honorius, fearing Stilicho’s power, executed him. Rome was now exposed to barbarian forces, particularly King Alaric and the Visigoths. Alaric besieged Rome in 410 and, when Honorius did not agree to his demands, sacked the city.

The Sack of Rome sent shockwaves around both halves of the Roman Empire. It was the first time the ‘eternal city’ had been taken by a foreign foe in 800 years. It marked a turning point in the collapse of the Western Roman empire, exposing the vulnerability of its emperors and their militaries to the world.

Honorius was less concerned about the incident. He was only surprised at the news because he initially thought the messenger was informing him of the death of his pet chicken, Roma. Honorius died of natural causes over a decade later.

The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths. Image Credit: Public Domain

Valentinian III (23 October 425 – 16 March 455)

After the death of Honorius, Valentinian III was appointed emperor at the age of just six. His unstable empire was at first controlled by his mother, Galla Placidia, then protected by his powerful general, Flavius Aetius.

Aetius’ two decades in command of the Roman army saw some of their rare victories in this period. They even managed to repel Attila the Hun. However, like Honorius before him, Valentinian became wary of his general’s power. He was turned against Aetius by a powerful aristocrat named Petronius Maximus, and in 454 he took drastic action and assassinated his protector.

Valentinian was himself killed within months of murdering Aetius.

Coin depicting Galla Placidia, regent of Valentinian III. Image Credit: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com / CC

Petronius Maximus (17 March 455 – 31 May 455)

Petronius Maximus was instrumental in the deaths of both Aetius and Valentinian III, but the scheming politician held power less than three months. Maximus was killed by an angry mob when word reached Rome than the Vandals were sailing to attack the city. They stoned him to death then threw his body into the Tiber.

Shortly after Maximus’ death, the Vandals arrived and sacked Rome for a second time. They ravaged the city for two whole weeks; their savagery and violence during this period gives us the word ‘vandalism’.

The Roman Empire c. 457. Image Credit: Wojwoj / CC

Avitus (9 July 455 – 17 October 456)

Avitus was a general of Petronius Maximus who took power after his death. Originally from Gaul, he proposed including more Gallic noblemen in the Roman Senate. This move was unpopular with the conservative Senators and he was viewed as a foreigner by the Romans, still suffering after the Vandals’ attack on their city.

Eventually this discontent led two of his commanders, Majorian and Ricimer, to depose him.

Coin depicting Avitus. Image Credit: Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG / CC.

Majorian (April 1 457 – August 2 461)

Majorian made the last great attempt to restore the Western Roman Empire. His valiant efforts against Rome’s enemies led Edward Gibbon to call him ‘a great and heroic character, such as sometimes arise, in a degenerate age, to vindicate the honour of the human species’.

Majorian was victorious against the Visigoths, Burgundians and Suebi. He did much to restore Roman control in Italy, Gaul and Spain before planning a series of major reforms to overcome the empire’s social and economic difficulties. He was eventually betrayed and assassinated by his colleague, Ricimer, who conspired with Roman aristocrats opposed to his reforms.

The Roman Empire after the conquests of Majorian. Image Credit: Tataryn77 / CC

Libius Severus (19 November 461 – 15 August 465)

Following the death of Majorian, the remaining Western Roman Emperors were mostly puppets of powerful generals with the title magister militum (Master of the Soldiers). These generals could not become emperors as they were of barbarian descent, but had worked their way up the ranks and now controlled the remnants of the empire’s military.

Ricimer, the warlord who had deposed Majorian and Avitus, placed Libius Severus on the throne and ruled through him. As a result, several important governors and the Eastern Roman Emperor refused to recognise Severus as ruler in the west. Meanwhile Majorian’s conquests were lost, as barbarians retook Rome’s provinces.

Anthemius (12 April 467 – 11 July 472)

Anthemius was chosen by both Ricimer and the Eastern Roman Emperor Leo I to replace Libius Severus after he died from natural causes. Anthemius was a capable general who led campaigns against the Vandals in North Africa and the Visigoths in southern Gaul.

He was ultimately unsuccessful and eventually he quarrelled with Ricimer. Anthemius, the Senate and the People of Rome tried to take on Ricimer’s barbarian armies, but were besieged in the city. Anthemius was killed by Ricimer’s men while sheltering in St Peter’s Basilica.

The Old St Peter’s Basilica, final refuge of Anthemius. Image Credit: Public Domain

Olybrius (11 July 472 – 2 November 472)

Olybrius was a Roman aristocrat who was related to the King of the Vandals by marriage. Ricimer placed him on the throne as he was in a good position to obtain peace with the Vandals, who still were raiding Italy from their new home in North Africa.

Ricimer and Olybrius ruled together for only a few months before they both died of natural causes. When Ricimer died, his nephew Gundobad inherited his barbarian armies, and his influence in the remnants of the Roman military with the title magister militum.

Coin depicting Olybrius. Image Credit: Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG / CC

Glycerius (3 March 473 – 24 June 474)

After a brief interregnum, Glycerius was placed on the throne by Gundobad, the nephew of Ricimer. Gundobad ruled the Burgundians, a powerful barbarian tribe who propped up the Roman military. Under Glycerius and Gundobad the Western Roman Empire managed to repel invasions by the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths.

Despite these achievements the Eastern Roman Emperor Leo I refused to accept Glycerius’ rule. He thought the Western Empire should be under the sway of his Eastern Empire, not a barbarian leader. As a result, Leo I sent his general Julius Nepos to depose Glycerius.

Julius Nepos (24 June 474 – 28 August 475)

Julius Nepos was Eastern Roman Emperor Leo I’s candidate to become Western Roman Emperor. He arrived in Italy and forced Glycerius to abdicate, sparing his life and appointing him as a bishop. After a short rule he was ousted by a powerful Roman general, Orestes, who placed his son Romulus Augustus on the throne.

After being deposed, Julius Nepos ‘ruled’ in exile from Dalmatia, in modern Croatia. Some historians consider Nepos the last Western Roman Emperor as he was the final ruler to be recognised by the eastern half of the empire. He lived in Dalmatia until he was assassinated in 480.

Portrait of Julius Nepos. Image Credit: CC

Romulus Augustulus (31 October 475 – 4 September 476)

Flavius Romulus was only 15 years old when his father, Orestes, made him Rome’s last emperor. Orestes was a Roman aristocrat and commander who had once served as secretary to Attila the Hun himself. Orestes had been placed in command of foederati barbarian troops in the Roman army and used them to depose Julius Nepos.

Before long, Orestes was killed by Odoacer, the leader of these barbarian mercenaries. Odoacer then marched against Romulus, who was sheltering in Ravenna, and crushed the loyal remnants of the Roman army protecting the city. Odoacer forced Romulus to abdicate the throne, handing over power to the barbarian.

Romulus Augustus abdicates to Odoacer. Image Credit: Public Domain

When his father crowned Romulus, he was given the title ‘Augustus’ like all emperors. It is often noted that the final emperor had both the name of Rome’s legendary founder, Romulus, and Rome’s first emperor, Augustus. A fitting title for its final ruler. Many historians call him by the diminutive form of Augustus, Augustulus, because he was both weak and young when he was emperor.

Romulus’ abdication marked the conclusion of the Western Roman Empire. His life was spared owing to his youth, but he did not return to power. After 1,200 years of Roman rule, Italy now had a barbarian as its king. The Eastern Roman Empire, however, would live on for nearly 1,000 years, in the form of the Byzantine Empire.

Eleanor’s political and personal achievements were varied, but a turning point for her, and for the history of High Medieval Europe, was her marriage to King Henry II of England. As husband and wife they ruled over an Anglo-French empire which spanned from the south of France to Scotland.

Her marriage to Henry II was sudden, but it endured for three and a half decades. A fascinating series of events and some secretive courting (while she was still married to her first husband) brought the two together.

The Duchess of Aquitaine

Born in 1122, Eleanor was the heir to her father’s duchy of Aquitaine. The duchy was one of the largest estates in Europe, covering much of the French European landmass we know today. The huge fiefdom stretched from the Loire to the Pyrenees.

This made Eleanor the most eligible heiress in Europe. She grew up in a household of great wealth, and in Aquitaine women were granted liberties which were not common across Europe. They could mix freely with men (in other courts and kingdoms they would have been strictly chaperoned), and Eleanor was granted a liberal education in Latin and Provencal (the language of Aquitaine itself).

Her wealth and upbringing made her a confident and accomplished young woman. After her father’s death, she inherited his lands in Aquitaine aged just 15. She was married to Louis le Jeune of France in 1137; before long Louis was crowned King of France.

Detail of Eleanor of Aquitaine in Poitiers Cathedral. Image Credit: Danielclauzier / CC.

Queen of France

As the Duchess of Aquitaine, Eleanor had developed a reputation for style, luxury and patronage of the arts. Her wealth, education and confidence made her court famous. When she became Queen of France, her cultural interests flourished: she introduced to Paris Aquitaine’s fashion, language and respect for women.

She also developed a strong relationship with King Louis VII, and the couple shared each other’s artistic interests. She indulged his passion for Aristotle, while he encouraged her love of poetry and hunting. She also bore him a daughter, Marie.

Their court poets, troubadours, were the best in all of Europe, and even warlike French knights were converted to Eleanor’s ways. One account relates how Eleanor set up a mock trial in which the ladies of the court judged French knights while they read love poetry and dressed in elaborate outfits.

In 1147, Eleanor travelled with King Louis on the Second Crusade, but there the marriage began to show signs of strains. Rumours circulated that the attractive and charismatic Eleanor was drawing unnaturally close to her long-lost uncle, Raymond of Poitiers.

Raymond of Poitiers welcoming King Louis VII to Antioch. Image credit: Public Domain.

Louis and Raymond disagreed over the best strategy to reclaim the Holy Land. Eleanor made the unpopular decision of siding with Raymond, and her reputation suffered as she had also not produced a male heir.

She was sent back to France from the Holy Land in disgrace in 1149.

The Courting

When Eleanor and Louis returned to Paris in 1150, Eleanor gave birth to another daughter, Alix. King Louis and his queen had now been married for 13 years and their union had still not resulted in a son. Their marriage, once the envy of Christendom, was foundering.

In an attempt to restore stability to their family, Pope Eugene III and Abbot Suger intervened to try bring the two together. Neither of the religious leaders were successful.

In 1151, in the midst of these difficulties, Geoffrey Plantagenet and his son, Henry, travelled to Paris. They were present to negotiate over the duchy of Normandy, but their journey would change Eleanor’s life.

Geoffrey was a powerful figure as he was married to Empress Matilda, the daughter and heir of King Henry I of England. Geoffrey’s son Henry was 11 years younger than Eleanor, but had a strong claim to the throne of kingdom of England through Matilda.

During their stay at court more gossip circulated about Eleanor; this time it was whispered that she had struck up a relationship with Geoffrey, who was many years her senior. However, the rumours did not put off Henry. He ignored the hearsay about his father and made a dramatic arrangement with Eleanor.

In the midst of King Louis’ own court, Henry and Eleanor secretly agreed to marry. Eleanor prepared to break off her marriage with one of Europe’s most powerful men and elope with Henry.

Eleanor and Henry

In 1152 the failing marriage of Louis and Eleanor was annulled by the Pope on the grounds of consanguinity, since they were third cousins. Eleanor was now free to marry Henry, to whom she was (ironically) even more closely related.

Eleanor departed the French court for her home in March of that year. En route, Henry’s brother and another lord tried to kidnap her so they might marry her and claim the Aquitaine lands. Eleanor escape their clutches and reached Poitiers where she sent word for Henry to join her.

In May 1152, only two months after her annulment, Henry and Eleanor married in a modest ceremony at Poitiers cathedral. She then supported Henry as he campaigned in England and claimed the throne as part of the settlement between his mother, Matilda, and her cousin Stephen. Their Anglo-French domain was now vast, with territories in modern-day England, France, Wales and Ireland.

Eleanor’s marriage to King Henry II produced eight children: five sons and three daughters. Her residence in Poitiers became famous for developing the practice of ‘courtly love’, stylised and exaggerated displays of affection.

Family difficulties

However, Eleanor and Henry had a tumultuous marriage. Henry was often adulterous, and his rule was not without difficulty: his troubles with the church led to the death of Thomas Beckett.

The death of Thomas Becket.

Eleanor too had her own schemes. In 1173 she joined with her son in a revolt against King Henry, and spent 16 years in prison as a consequence.

After King Henry’s death Eleanor lived on for many years, even ruling England as Queen Dowager while her son Richard the Lionheart was on crusade. She later defended Aquitaine and Anjou from her own grandson, organising the defence of the city of Mirebeau against his armies.

Eleanor was the mother to five monarchs, and her progeny became kings, queens, emperors and archbishops. She eventually lived into her 80s, a rare feat in the High Medieval period, dying in 1204.

628 VCs were awarded in World War One, a quarter posthumously. Recipients include a 16-year-old sailor and a Canadian flying ace. All of their stories are inspiring tales of courage in the face of the enemy.

Here are 10 Victoria Cross winners of World War One:

1. Lieutenant Albert Ball

From 25 April to 6 May 1917, Lieutenant Albert Ball of the Royal Flying Corps engaged in 26 different aerial combats. Ball was, at the time of his death, Britain’s top flying ace with 44 confirmed and 25 unconfirmed kills. During his final 26 battles he destroyed 11 hostile aeroplanes, often flying alone against five or six German planes.

Finally, on 7 May 1917, Ball led an attack on the squadron commanded by Lother von Richthofen, the Red Baron’s younger brother, near Annoeullin in northern France. Ball was shot down and died during the struggle, and was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.

Lieutenant Albert Ball, VC (Image Credit: photograph Q 69593 from the Imperial War Museums / Public Domain).

2. Boy Seaman Jack Cornwell

Boy Seaman First Class Jack Cornwell was the youngest man to be awarded the Victoria Cross in the First World War. On 31 May 1916, during the Battle of Jutland, Cornwell was serving as a sight-setter on a gun aboard the HMS Chester.

The ship came under intense fire, and all of his gun crew were killed or mortally injured. Despite suffering severe wounds, including metal shards through his chest, Cornwell stayed at his post for the duration of the battle. He died from his wounds three days later, aged just 16 years old.

Boy Seaman Jack Cornwell, VC

3. Naik Shahamad Khan

On 12 April 1916, Naik Shahamad Khan of the 89th Punjabis was serving in Mesopotamia when he earned the Victoria Cross for his valour. Khan was in charge of a machine gun in an exposed position, covering a gap in the British lines.

He beat off three enemy attacks and worked the gun single-handedly when most of his men became casualties. After his gun was knocked out, he and two men held off the enemy with their rifles. When his section finally withdrew, he brought back a severely wounded man, then returned to remove the section’s arms and ammunition.

Naik Shahamad Khan, VC

4. Lieutenant Arthur Martin-Leake

Lieutenant Arthur Martin-Leake, Royal Army Medical Corps, is one of three men to be a double recipient of the Victoria Cross. Martin-Leake first earned a VC in 1902 during the Second Boer War, for helping wounded men despite being shot three times.

He was awarded his second VC after his actions from 29 October to 8 November 1914 near Zonnebeke in Belgium. Despite being exposed to constant enemy fire, Martin-Leake rescued a large number of wounded men who were lying close to the enemy’s trenches.

5. Lieutenant William Sanders

Lieutenant William Sanders, commander of the HMS Prize, was awarded the Victoria Cross for his valour on 30 April 1917. Near the Isles of Scilly, HMS Prize was attacked and badly hit by a German U-Boat.

Sanders sent off some of his wounded men in a small boat, and remained hidden with the rest of the crew on the ship. Thinking the HMS Prize to be abandoned, the U-Boat approached.

When it drew near, Sanders ordered the ensign to be hoisted and the Prize opened fire. The U-Boat was seriously damage and fled, with its captain and two others abandoned in the water. Sanders rescued the three German prisoners and made for the Irish coast.

HMS Prize engages the German U-Boat. (Image Credit: Charles Edward Dixon, National Maritime Museum / Public Domain).

6. Private Albert Halton

On the opening day of the Battle of Passchendaele, Private Albert Halton of the King’s Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) displayed exceptional bravery. Seeing the men around him pinned down from heavy enemy machine gun and rifle fire, Halton ran forwards 300 yards through a hail of bullets.

Halton captured a German machine gun nest and its crew single-handedly. He then went out into the field again and brought in 12 further prisoners. He survived the rest of the war and went on to live to 78.

7. Captain William Bishop

On 2 June 1917, Captain William ‘Billy’ Bishop of the Royal Flying Corps flew a solo mission behind enemy lines. Previously, Bishop had won the Distinguished Service Order for shooting down two aircraft while being attacked by four others, and had even survived an engagement with the Red Baron.

On this solo mission, Bishop shot down three aircraft as they were taking off to attack him and destroyed several more on the ground. For this deed, he was awarded the Victoria Cross. For a time in 1917, Bishop was the RFC’s top ace pilot, and later served as Director of the Royal Canadian Air Force during the Second World War.

Captain William Bishop, VC (Image Credit: CC – Flickr).

8. Private John Caffrey

On 16 November 1915 Private John Caffrey spotted a badly-wounded soldier lying in no man’s land, in full view of the enemy trenches.

Aided by a Medical Corporal, Caffrey tried to rescue him. Their first attempt failed when they were driven back by shrapnel fire, but they tried again and successfully reached the wounded soldier. As they lifted the wounded man, the Medical Corporal was shot.

Caffrey bandaged up the Corporal and carried him back to the British lines. He then returned and brought the first wounded soldier to safety.

Private John Caffrey in later life.

9. Lieutenant Colonel William Barker

On 27 October 1918 Canadian fighter ace William Barker took on an armada of German biplanes in perhaps the most one-sided dogfight of World War One. Both Barker and his Sopwith Snipe were riddled with bullets, but Barker remained conscious and downed four aircraft, for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross.

Barker became the most decorated Canadian in World War One. In addition to his VC he won the Distinguished Service Order and Bar, the Military Cross and two Bars, two Italian Silver Medals for Military Valour and the French Croix de Guerre. He died in 1930 and was granted a state funeral in Canada.

William Barker beside a Sopwith Camel.

10. Lance Corporal William Coltman

On 3 October 1918 Lance Corporal William Coltman of the North Staffordshire Regiment earned a Victoria Cross for his ‘bravery, initiative and devotion to duty’.

Coltman heard that wounded men had been left behind during a retreat at Mannequin Hill. He went alone in the face of fierce enemy fire, and on three separate occasions carried casualties on his back to safety. He tended to the wounded unceasingly for 48 hours.

Coltman was also awarded both the Distinguished Conduct Medal and the Military Medal twice, all for saving wounded men.

China’s weak military meant they were soundly defeated in both conflicts, and harsh treaties were imposed by the British and French. The First Opium War, for example, resulted in Hong Kong being ceded to Britain ‘in perpetuity’; the Second Opium War caused opium to be legalised in China.

Unlike Britain and France, Russia’s involvement in the Opium Wars is often overlooked. However, their exploitation of China’s weakness and their diplomatic skill earned them their largest port on the Pacific coast: Vladivostok.

The Second Opium War

The Second Opium War lasted from 1856-1860. Long-term Chinese discontent at British and French traders importing opium into the country boiled over into armed conflict. In October 1856 the Chinese seized a vessel sailing under the British flag, the Arrow, and charged it with piracy.

The British responded by destroying Chinese forts, and the crisis prompted a general election in Britain. Many members of parliament, including future Prime Minister William Gladstone, were abhorred by the opium trade and thought Britain should not protect it.

Lord Palmerston, whose government was in favour of war, won the election and Britain sent Royal Navy vessels and soldiers to Hong Kong, Britain’s new colony next to China. France, furious at the Chinese for executing one of their missionaries, allied with them. Anglo-French forces stormed and captured the important port of Canton. China rushed to rally its forces to fight them.

William Ewart Gladstone, opponent of the opium trade. Image Credit: Public Domain

Russia’s interest in ‘Outer Manchuria’

Russia and China had been struggling over ‘Outer Manchuria’, now the south-east of Russia, for centuries.

Throughout the 1600s Russia encouraged settlers to move to the region, but in the 1680s the Chinese had driven them out. In the 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk, Russia agreed to abandon its territorial claims to the area.

Russia, still desiring a naval outpost on the Pacific, began sending settlers to Outer Manchuria again during the 1700s. In the build-up to the Second Opium War, with China distracted elsewhere, the Russians secretly brought tens of thousands of troops to the border.

The Russians seize the opportunity

Once war began and the Anglo-French forces started winning victories over the Chinese, the Russian general Nikolay Muraviov spotted an opportunity. He revealed Russia’s military presence by China’s northern border and demanded that they cede huge swathes of territory or Russia would attack.

The Chinese feared a war on two fronts. They knew they could not resist the Anglo-French attacks on their southern ports and a Russian invasion to the north. The Qing dynasty’s representative, Yishan, agreed to Muraviov’s demands.

On 28 May 1858 the Treaty of Aigun was signed, agreeing a new border along the Amur River. Russia and its eastern seaboard was significantly enlarged.

British Map of 1851 showing the Russo-Chinese border before the Second Opium War. Image Credit: Public Domain

The destruction of Beijing’s Summer Palaces

The superior technologies and training of the Anglo-French army resulted in a series of decisive victories for the western powers. At this stage, a young Russian Major General named Nikolay Ignatyev visited the Chinese capital of Peking (modern Beijing) to try and negotiate further concessions.

Anglo-French forces arrived in Peking in October 1860, and the Chinese surrender was imminent. In punishment for China’s mistreatment of prisoners, the British and the French destroyed Beijing’s Summer Palaces. They carried off priceless works of art and performed acts of wanton destruction in retribution for Chinese abuses during the war.

The British general, Lord Elgin, even considered sacking China’s historic palace complex, the Forbidden City. The Chinese finally agreed to negotiate a peace, and Ignatyev positioned himself as the mediator between the two sides.

Capture of the Summer Palace. Image Credit: Public Domain

Russia’s success at the Convention of Peking

The Convention of Peking saw China, Britain, France and Russia come together to determine the result of the war. The treaties they ratified were highly unequal – in favour of the westerners.

On 25 and 26 October 1860 the Chinese Emperor’s brother signed a series of agreements with the British and the French. A significant portion of the Kowloon Peninsula was granted to the British, extending the colony of Hong Kong. Both France and Britain also benefited from the legalisation of opium and Christianity, as well as hefty reparations.

During the negotiations, Ignatyev convinced the Chinese that only his influence with Britain and France could persuade their armies to leave Beijing. He cunningly played on Chinese fears that the capital could be destroyed if the Convention failed.

Nikolay Ignatyev. Image Credit: Public Domain

To ensure Ignatyev’s loyalty the Chinese ceded even more land to the Russians, giving them control of everything between the River Amur and the Golden Horn Bay.

Vladivostok

In this way Russia benefited immensely from the Second Opium War, despite not actually fighting in it. Ignatyev achieved more than his countrymen had ever hoped for. Their new territory in the south-east of the country became the Maritime Province, or ‘Primorski Krai’.

Russian opportunism and Ignatyev’s diplomacy provided Russia with the Golden Horn Bay, soon the home of its great Pacific sea port: Vladivostok. The city, with its position on the south-eastern edge of Russia, allowed Russian military and economic influence to extend into the Pacific.

Russian territorial gains during the Second Opium War. Brown areas represent the territory secured in the Treaty of Aigun. Pink areas represent the territory secured at the Convention of Peking. Image Credit: Public Domain

The Chinese only realised their mistake decades later. The agreements with Russia, Britain and France in the 19th century eventually came to be known as the ‘Unequal Treaties’. These agreements were highly resented for the territorial and economic losses they inflicted.

Vladivostok remains Russia’s most important Pacific Ocean port, and the home of the Russian Pacific Fleet.

From climbing onto the wing of an aircraft in-flight, to fighting hand-to-hand with the enemy, their stories are inspiring.

Here are 10 Victoria Cross winners of World War Two:

1. Captain Charles Upham

Captain Charles Upham of the New Zealand Military Forces has the singular distinction of being the only soldier of the Second World War to receive the Victoria Cross twice. When informed of his first VC, his response was: “It’s meant for the men”.

During an attack in Crete in May 1941, he engaged an enemy machine-gun nest at close quarters with his pistol and grenades. He later crawled to within 15 yards of another machine-gun to kill the gunners, before carrying away his wounded men under fire. Later, he ambushed a force threatening Force Headquarters, shooting 22 enemies.

Over a year later, during the First Battle of El Alamein, Upham received his second Victoria Cross. Upham destroyed a German tank, several guns and vehicles with grenades, despite being shot through the elbow. Upham was imprisoned in Colditz after numerous escape attempts from other POW camps. 

Captain Charles Upham VC. (Image Credit: Mattinbgn / CC).

2. Wing Commander Guy Gibson

On 16 May 1943 Wing Commander Guy Gibson led No. 617 Squadron in Operation Chastise, otherwise known as the Dam Busters Raid.

Using purpose-built ‘bouncing bombs’ developed by Barnes Wallis, 617 Squadron breached the Mohne and Edersee dams, causing flooding of the Ruhr and Eder valleys. Gibson’s pilots expertly deployed bombs which avoided the heavy torpedo nets protecting the German dams. During the attacks, Gibson used his aircraft to draw anti-aircraft fire away from his fellow pilots.

3. Private Frank Partridge

On 24 July 1945, Private Frank Partridge of the Australian 8th Battalion attacked a Japanese post near Ratsua. After Partridge’s section suffered heavy casualties, Partridge retrieved the section’s Bren gun and began shooting at the nearest Japanese bunker.

Although wounded in the arm and leg, he rushed forward with only a grenade and knife. He silenced the Japanese machine-gun with his grenade and killed the remaining occupant of the bunker with his knife. Partridge was the youngest Australian to be awarded the Victoria Cross, and later became a television quiz champion.

Private Frank Partridge (far left) with King George VI.

4. Lieutenant-Commander Gerard Roope

Lieutenant-Commander Gerard Roope of the Royal Navy posthumously received the first Victoria Cross awarded in the Second World War. His award is one of very few to have been partly recommended by an enemy. On 8 April 1940, HMS Glowworm, commanded by Roope, successfully engaged two enemy destroyers.

When the destroyers retreated towards German capital ships, Roope pursued them. He came upon the German cruiser Admiral Hipper, a vastly superior warship, and his own destroyer was hit and set ablaze. Roope responded by ramming the enemy cruiser, gouging several holes in her hull.

HMS Glowworm in flames after engaging the Admiral Hipper.

HMS Glowworm scored a hit in its final salvo before she capsized and sank. Roope drowned in the course of rescuing his surviving men, who were picked up by the Germans. The German commander of the Admiral Hipper wrote to the British authorities, recommending Roope be awarded the Victoria Cross for his bravery.

5. 2nd Lieutenant Moana-Nui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu

On 26 March 1943, 2nd Lieutenant Moana-Nui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu of the 28th Maori Battalion was tasked with capturing a German-held hill in Tunisia. Ngarimu led his men through mortar and machine gun fire and was first to crest the hill. Personally destroying two machine gun posts, Ngarimu’s attack forced the enemy to retreat.

Against fierce counter-attacks and mortar fire, Ngarimu fought hand-to-hand with the Germans. For the rest of the day and through the night, he rallied his men until only three remained.

Reinforcements arrived, but in the morning Ngarimu was killed while repelling a final counter-attack. The Victoria Cross that he was posthumously awarded was the first to be awarded to a Maori.

2nd Lieutenant Moana-Nui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu.

6. Major David Currie

On 18 August 1944 Major David Currie of the South Alberta Regiment, Canadian Army was ordered to capture the village of St. Lambert-sur-Dives in Normandy.

Currie’s men entered the village and entrenched themselves, withstanding counter-attacks for two days. Currie’s small mixed force destroyed 7 enemy tanks, 12 guns and 40 vehicles, and captured over 2,000 prisoners.

Major David Currie (centre-left, with revolver) accepting the German surrender.

7. Sergeant James Ward

On 7 July 1941 Sergeant James Ward of No. 75 (NZ) Squadron was co-pilot on a Vickers Wellington bomber returning from an attack on Munster, Germany. His plane was attacked by a German night fighter, which damaged a fuel tank on the wing, causing a fire in the starboard engine.

Mid-flight, Sergeant Ward crawled out of the cockpit, ripping holes in the aircraft’s wing with a fire axe to provide hand-holds. Despite the wind pressure, Ward successfully reached the fire and smothered the flames with a piece of canvas. The aircraft made a safe landing owing to his bravery and initiative.

8. Rifleman Tul Pun

On 23 June 1944, Rifleman Tul Pun of the 6th Gurkha Rifles took part in an attack on a railway bridge in Burma. After all other members of his section were wounded or killed, Pun charged an enemy bunker alone, killing 3 enemies and putting the rest to flight.

He captured 2 light machine guns and their ammunition, and supported the rest of his platoon with fire from the bunker. In addition to the Victoria Cross, Pun earned 10 other medals in his career, including the Burma Star. He attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953, and died in 2011.

9. Acting Leading Seaman Joseph Magennis

On 31 July 1945, Acting Leading Seaman Joseph Magennis of HMS XE3 was part of a submarine crew tasked with sinking a 10,000 ton Japanese cruiser. After Magennis’ submarine was in place beneath the cruiser, he exited the diver’s hatch and placed limpet mines onto its hull.

To attach the mines, Magennis had to hack at barnacles on its hull, and suffered from a leak in his oxygen mask. On withdrawing, his Lieutenant found one of the submarine’s limpet carriers would not jettison.

Acting Leading Seaman James Josepgh Magennis VC (left), and Lieutenant Ian Edwards Fraser, also awarded the VC. (Image Credit: photograph A 26940A from the IWM collections / Public Domain).

Magennis exited the submarine in his diver’s suit again and freed the limpet carrier after 7 minutes of nerve-wracking work. He was the only Northern Irishman to be awarded the Victoria Cross in the Second World War, and died in 1986.

10. 2nd Lieutenant Premindra Bhagat

On 31 January 1941, Second-Lieutenant Premindra Bhagat, Corps of Indian Engineers, led a section of a Field Company of Sappers and Miners in pursuit of enemy troops. For a period of 4 days and across 55 miles he led his men in clearing the road and adjacent areas of mines.

During this period, he himself detected and cleared 15 minefields of varying dimensions. On two occasions when his carrier was destroyed, and on another occasion when his section was ambushed, he carried on with his task.

He refused relief when worn out by fatigue, or when one eardrum was punctured by an explosion, on the grounds that he was now better qualified to continue his task. For his bravery and persistency over these 96 hours, Bhagat was awarded the Victoria Cross.

Featured Image at top: Major David Currie.

Around 1,500 Allied pilots perished during the Battle of Britain. Their sacrifice was immortalised by Churchill himself, who declared:

“Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few”.

The planes of the Battle of Britain are among the most iconic in British and German history. Famous aircraft like the Spitfire, Messerschmitt, Hurricane, Junkers Ju 88 and lesser known designs clashed.

Here are 11 types of aircraft which fought in the Battle of Britain:

1. Hawker Hurricane

Hawker Hurricanes accounted for 60% of German losses in the Battle of Britain. They were the most numerous fighter aircraft which the RAF deployed, partly owing to their rapid turn-around time (it took them only 9 minutes to be refuelled and re-armed).

Hawker Hurricane Mk 1.

They were devastating against heavier aircraft, being faster than German bombers and armed with front-firing .303 Browning machine guns. They could also perform well against very quick German fighters like the Messerschmitt bf 109s.

The first Hurricane’s maiden flight was on 6 November 1935, and 14,487 of them had been built by the time production ceased in July 1944.

2. Supermarine Spitfire

The Spitfire remains one of the most iconic aircraft of the Second World War. Although their turnaround time was longer than the Hurricane (29 minutes), they were faster. This made them a good match for the Messerschmitt bf 109s. In an attack on a German formation, the Hurricanes would focus their fire on the bombers while the Spitfires dealt with the fighter escort.

A Spitfire Mark IIA of No. 65 Squadron RAF parked on the ground at Tangmere, Sussex, 1940.

The Spitfire was helped in aerial dogfights by a tight turning circle, which meant they could sometimes outmanoeuvre Messerschmitts. However, the two aircraft were very evenly matched, so their engagements were decided by the tactics and skill of the pilots.

Many Spitfires were bought by private individuals or communities after the war, and around 60 are still in airworthy condition.

3. Messerschmitt bf 109

Messerschmitt bf 109E-3.

The Messerschmitt bf 109 was the most numerous and dangerous of the Luftwaffe’s fighter planes. It was built to an extremely advanced design, with retractable landing gear and a liquid-cooled inverted-V-12 engine.

The Messerschmitt’s speed and manoeuvrability made it the standard against which other fighter planes were compared. They protected German bombers from Allied fighter attacks, predominantly engaging British Spitfires and Hurricanes. The Messerschmitt had a ‘gentle stall’, which allowed the aircraft to perform tight turns close to the actual stalling point of the engine.

The main flaw of the Messerschmitt was that they had limited fuel capacity, with a 410 mile maximum range. This meant that they often had only 10 minutes of flying time when they reached their target before they needed to return home.

4. Messerschmitt bf 110

Messerschmitt bf 110. (Image Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-669-7340-27 / Blaschka / CC-BY-SA 3.0 Commons).

The Messerschmitt bf 110 was a long-range destroyer; it was hoped that it would escort bomber fleets and engage in air combat with one-man fighters. It was fast and well-designed, but simply lacked the acceleration and manoeuvrability of the Spitfire and the Hurricane.

Hermann Göring called them his ‘Ironsides’, but in reality they suffered some of the highest casualty rates in the Battle of Britain. In one attack on North Eastern England, seven of the 21 aircraft deployed were shot down.

5. Boulton Paul Defiant

Boulton Paul Defiants in formation.

The RAF expected the Boulton Paul Defiant to be an effective anti-bomber craft. They considered that a movable gun turret would provide greater flexibility in attack than the single-seat fighters had. These planes, like the Spitfire and Hurricane, could only fire straight ahead, so theoretically were less able to shoot at bombers for an extended period of time.

The ‘Daffy’, as the Defiant came to be known, actually had some major flaws. The extra weight and drag of the gun turret slowed the plane, and it couldn’t fire directly forward. If the Defiant’s electrics were disabled, its gunner was not able to escape from the turret as it was operated entirely by electricity.

As a result, the Defiant was soon withdrawn from day-time operations in the Battle of Britain. It was later found to be much more effective as a night-fighter, shooting down the most enemy planes during the Blitz of all British aircraft types.

6. Fiat CR.42

Fiat CR.42.

The Fiat CR.42 was an older Italian fighter used by the Corpo Aereo Italiano. They made only one mission during the Battle of Britain, a raid on Ramsgate, as the biplanes were not equal to modern fighters.

On 11 November 1940, four CR.42s were shot down by Hurricanes without losing a craft. The Luftwaffe had difficulty even flying in formation with CR.42s owing to their low top speeds.

7. Dornier Do 17

Dornier Do 17. (Image Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-341-0489-13 / Spieth / CC-BY-SA 3.0 / CC).

The Dornier Do 17 was a Luftwaffe ‘fast bomber’. It was hoped that it would be able to evade British fighter aircraft. Known as the ‘flying pencil’ because of its streamlined design, the Do 17 had very good handling at low altitudes. This made them much less vulnerable than cumbersome bombers.

The Do 17 also benefited from an air-cooled BMW engine which was much harder for British fighters to disable, as there was no vulnerable cooling system to destroy.

However, the Do 17, like all German bombers, suffered from a lack of accuracy. It was extremely difficult for them to hit small, important targets like radar stations. It also had a low bomb carrying capacity of only 2,205lbs.

8. Junkers Ju 88

Junkers Ju 88. (Image Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-421-2069-14 / Ketelhohn (t) / CC-BY-SA 3.0).

The Junkers Ju 88 was thought by the RAF to be the most difficult bomber to shoot down. Its handling was responsive and it had a high top speed; without its bomb load even Spitfires struggled to catch it. The forward turret could also be locked in a front-facing position for strafing runs.

However, only smaller bombs could be carried inside the craft, with large bombs causing drag on external racks.

The Ju 88 could be used as both a dive-bomber and a level bomber. Early in the Battle of Britain it replaced the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka, the most accurate German dive-bomber, as the Stuka lacked effective defensive weaponry.

9. Heinkel He 111

Heinkel He 111. (Image Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-317-0043-17A / CC-BY-SA 3.0).

The Heinkel He 111 was the most numerous bomber which the Luftwaffe deployed during the Battle of Britain. It was capable of storing and delivering large bombs (250kg) and had state-of-the-art gyroscopic sights to improve its accuracy. The He 111 was protected armour plating and self-sealing fuel tanks which made them difficult to shoot down.

Being nearly 100mph slower than the Spitfire, the He 111 was frequently caught by British fighters. Aircraft often returned to base with hundreds of bullet holes in their fuselage.

10. Fiat BR.20

Fiat BR.20. (Image Credit: The Flight magazine archive / Commons).

This Italian twin-engined bomber could carry 1,600kg of bombs. When it was developed, the BR.20 was considered one of the most advanced bombers in the world. However, it participated in the latter stages of the Battle of Britain to limited effect.

Italian bombers flew over 100 sorties in the Battle of Britain, with only one notable success: the destruction of a canning factory in Lowestoft.

11. Junkers Ju 87

Ju 87 Bs over Poland, September/October 1939. (Image credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-1987-1210-502 / Hoffmann, Heinrich, CC).

More famously known as the ‘Stuka’, the Ju 87 is perhaps the most recognisable dive bomber of the Second World War, made famous by its infamous Jericho trumpet.

During the Battle of Britain, squadrons of Stukas gained some success destroying ground targets. On 13 August 1940 – Eagle Day – Stukas attacked RAF Detling and inflicted a high level of damage on the airfield.

The Junkers Ju 87s were highly-susceptible to heavy losses if opposed by enemy fighter aircraft. If the Luftwaffe had won the Battle of Britain, these dive bombers would have played a vital role in disabling the British fleet as the German invasion force attempted to cross the Channel.

At the Battle of Mons the British defended the Mons-Condé Canal in Belgium from a much larger German force. The BEF fought fiercely but were eventually pushed back.

Here are 10 facts about the Battle of Mons.

1. It was Britain’s first battle in western Europe for 100 years

The last time the British had fought in western Europe was at the famous Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

Although the French army had been fighting the Germans at Lorraine, Ardennes and Charleroi, it was in Mons that the first shots were fired by the British.

Mons was also where the first British soldier to be killed in the war, Private John Parr, died, on 21 August 1914, in an ambush by German troops whilst out on a bicycle reconnaissance patrol.

2. The Battle of Mons was part of the ‘Battle of the Frontiers’

The Battle of the Frontiers is the collective name for the first series of engagements between Allied and German forces on the Western Front in the opening month of the First World War. It was fought along the eastern borders of France and in southern Belgium.

During the Battle of the Frontiers, British and French troops attempted to stop the German advance and prevent them out-flanking the French army, yet it resulted in a series of stunning German victories and Allied retreats.

The Battle of Mons was the last of four Battles of the Frontiers that took place.

British soldiers before the Battle of Mons. (Image Credit: Public Domain).

3. The British Army was outnumbered three to one

In August 1914, the British Army was pitifully small. Two-thirds of it, merely 80,000 men, had crossed the channel as the British Expeditionary Force. It was made up of professional soldiers who were well-trained and disciplined. In contrast, the Germans and the French fielded armies of conscripts which were each over 1,000,000 strong.

As a result, the British were significantly out-numbered during the early battles of the First World War. At Mons, the Germans had three times more soldiers than the British.

Wounded heroes of the Battle of Mons.

4. The British and French were defending a canal

The British and the French had approached the town of Mons (which had mostly been abandoned by the locals) with little of idea of the numbers or location of the German Army. The British took up position along the Mons-Condé Canal to the north of the town.

It was agreed that the BEF would hold the canal for 24 hours and dig trenches on the south side of the canal. If they couldn’t hold the line, the plan was to withdraw south to form another defensive line.

The British did not have enough men to defend the length of the canal, so protected the areas by its bridges. The British made a mistake in neither destroying the bridges nor preparing them for detonation – they were over-confident in the first few days of the war.

5. British troops were uniquely skilful

Unlike the conscripts of the European armies, the men of the BEF were skilful and well-practiced marksmen. Armed with his Lee-Enfield rifle, a British soldier could hit a man-sized target 15 times per minute, at a range of 300 yards. This would be extremely useful when the Germans began their attack.

Diagram of the Battle of Mons

6. The Germans attacked in parade-ground formation

When the German attack began in the early hours of 23 August, the Germans advanced as if across a parade-ground. They marched towards the British in formations 15 ranks deep. One British infantryman said that any bullet which they fired would find its target.

The British were able to fire so quickly against these huge German formations that the Germans believed they were facing machine-gun fire. Consequently, despite the Germans targeting bridges, their first attacks were repulsed.

7. The British retreated after 48 hours

The Germans made several more attacks in looser formations. These were more successful, so the Germans pressed on the weakest parts of the British lines, even swimming across the canal to try gain a foothold.

Despite the valiant efforts of the BEF, the British were increasingly becoming surrounded, facing total annihilation, and were eventually forced to retreat after 48 hours holding back the German army. They managed to blow-up one bridge, but it was too little, too late).

Persued by the Germans, they pulled-back over 200 miles into France.

8. The British saw it as a victory

Government censorship prevented the defeat being reported immediately, and it took until 30 August for the news to emerge. The Times newspaper wrote a frank account of the battle, with the reporter stating how many, many, more men were needed by the army.

However, to this day, the British view the Battle of Mons as a victory. The BEF had been outnumbered by about 3:1 but had held off a much larger enemy force for 48 crucial hours. The battle also prevented the Germans from out-flanking the French army, and the British inflicted around 5,000 German casualties at a cost of only 1,600 men.

Mons did also prove to contribute to the German failure to manoeuvre around Paris (the Schlieffen Plan), because it bought the allies time.

9. The first Victoria Cross and Iron Cross of World War One were awarded

The Victoria Cross and the Iron Cross were the highest awards for bravery which could be awarded to British and German forces. The first Victoria Cross of World War One was awarded to Lieutenant Maurice Dease, who took control of a machine-gun station by the Nimy Bridge despite being shot several times, fighting up until the last moment to allow his section to escape. He later died of his wounds.

When Lieutenant Dease had been mortally wounded, Private Sidney Godley offered to defend the Railway Bridge while the rest of the section retreated and was also awarded the VC.

The first Iron Cross of World War One was awarded to Musketier Oskar Niemeyer, who swam across the canal and opened a swing-bridge. This allowed German troops to cross the canal, and Niemeyer was killed soon after.

Maurice James Dease (left), recipient of the first Victoria Cross of World War One, and right: Sidney Godley (right), the first Private to be awarded the VC in World War One – both at the Battle of Mons. (Image Credits: left – photograph Q 70451, right – photograph Q 80449 – both from from the collections of the Imperial War Museums / Public Domain).

10. The battle gave rise to several myths

The Battle of Mons came to be seen as a British victory against insurmountable odds, like the Battle of Agincourt. The battle produced several myths about how the troops fought so well. One legend was that the British had been protected by angels – blocking the Germans’ path and guiding the British to safety. This myth of the Angel of Mons is attributed to the utter exhaustion of the men, following the fighting and their lengthy retreat into France.

Another popular story was that the longbowmen of Agincourt’s ghosts had guarded against the Germans. Rumours even circulated that German corpses had been found with arrow wounds.

Nov 29 1915 – Illustrated London News The Ghostly Bowmen of Mons fight the Germans (Image Credit: Illustrated London News / Public Domain).

Some were caused by underestimating the enemy, others by failing to understand the battlefield terrain, but all brought disaster for these commanders and their men.

Here are ten of the worst mistakes in military history:

1. The Romans at the Battle of Cannae

In 216 BC Hannibal Barca famously crossed the Alps into Italy with only 40,000 soldiers. A vast Roman army of around 80,000 men was raised to oppose him, led by the two Roman consuls. At Cannae the majority of this huge force were lost owing to a disastrous error on the part of their Roman commanders.

The Roman generals’ plan at Cannae was to advance and punch through Hannibal’s thin battle-line, putting faith in their much larger infantry force. Hannibal, in contrast, had prepared a complex strategy.

He first ordered his infantry to feign withdrawals in the centre of his formation, drawing the eager Romans towards his crescent-shaped battle-line. The Romans, unsuspecting, thought they had the Carthaginians on the run and drove their forces deep into this crescent. Hannibal’s cavalry then drove off the horsemen who protected the Roman flank, and circled around the back of the huge Roman force, charging their rear.

The Roman commanders did not realise their mistake in time: the Carthaginian infantry’s crescent formation now surrounded them at the front, and Hannibal’s cavalry was driving into their rear. Roman soldiers were so tightly packed in this Carthaginian trap that they were unable even to swing their swords.

The Death of Aemilius Pallus at Cannae. Image Credit: Public Domain

Around 60,000 Romans perished owing to their generals’ over-confidence, including Aemilius Paullus, one of the Roman consuls. It ranks alongside the the Battle of the Somme as one of the bloodiest days in western military history.

2. Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae

In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus and his Roman legions were utterly crushed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae. Crassus made the mistake of failing to recognise the importance of terrain and the skills of the Parthian horse-archers.

Crassus had marched 40,000 legionaries and auxiliary troops into the desert in pursuit of the Parthian army. He ignored the advice of his allies and advisers who had proposed staying in the mountains or near the Euphrates to reduce the danger from the Parthian cavalry.

Weakened by thirst and heat, the Romans were attacked by the Parthians deep in the desert. Misjudging the size of the Parthian army, Crassus ordered his men to form an immobile square which was devastated by the Parthian horse archers. When Crassus had his men pursue the enemy they were charged by cataphracts, the Parthian heavy cavalry.

Crassus’ many blunders resulted in his own death, and that of his son and 20,000 Roman soldiers. He also lost several Legionary Eagles, the Roman military standards, which were not recovered for over thirty years.

3. The Romans at the Teutoburg Forest

Across their long military history, few defeats left such an impact on the Romans as that of Varus’ legions at the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. On hearing news of the disaster, the Emperor Augustus famously cried aloud to himself repeatedly, ‘Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!’.

Varus first made the error of trusting Arminius, a Germanic chieftain serving as his advisor. When Arminius informed him that a revolt had begun nearby, Varus marched his army through the Teutoburg Forest to deal with the problem.

Varus vastly underestimated the organisation of the Germanic tribes and their ability to use the local terrain; he did not reconnoitre the forest or even march his army in combat formation. As the Romans marched through the dense woodland, they were suddenly ambushed by a hidden and well-disciplined Germanic army led by Arminius himself.

Only a few thousand Romans escaped, and Varus himself was forced to commit suicide during the battle. Arminius’ victory prevented the Roman empire from ever establishing a firm grip on Germania.

4. The French at the Battle of Agincourt

On the morning of 25 October 1415, the French army at Agincourt would have been expecting a famous victory. Their army greatly outnumbered the English host under Henry V, and they had a much larger force of knights and men-at-arms.

The French, however, made a ruinous mistake, miscalculating the accuracy, range and firing rate of the English longbows. During the battle, the French cavalry attempted to charge the English archers, but were unable to pass the sharpened stakes which protected them. Meanwhile the French men-at-arms moved slowly over the muddy ground separating them from the English.

In these conditions, the entire French army was hugely vulnerable to the constant hail of arrows from the English longbows. The French were easily beaten back when they finally pushed through the arrows to Henry V’s lines. Their mistakes resulted in the French losing around ten times the number of English casualties.

5. The Austrians at the Battle of Karánsebes

On the night of 21-22 September 1788, during the Austro-Turkish War, the Austrian army under Emperor Joseph II defeated itself in a major friendly-fire incident.

Emperor Joseph II and his Soldiers. Image Credit: Public Domain

Clashes between Austrian troops began when the Austrian Hussars who were serving as scouts refused to share their schnapps with some infantry. After one of the drunken Hussars fired a shot, the infantry opened fire in return. As the two groups fought, they heard shouts of ‘Turks! Turks!’, leading them to believe the Ottomans were nearby.

The Hussars fled back into the Austrian camp, and a confused officer ordered his artillery to fire upon them. In the darkness, the Austrians believed the Ottoman cavalry were attacking them unawares and turned on each other in terror.

Over 1,000 Austrians were killed during the night, and Joseph II ordered a general withdrawal on account of the chaos. When the Ottomans actually arrived two days later, they took Karánsebes without a fight.

6. Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia

The invasion force which Napoleon mustered for his campaign against Russia was the largest army ever assembled in the history of warfare. Over 685,000 men from France and Germany crossed the Neman River and began the invasion. After Napoleon’s failure to force the Russians to surrender and lengthy retreat, his army would suffer 500,000 casualties.

Napoleon falsely believed the Russians would deploy their army in a conclusive battle, but instead they withdrew deeper into Russian territory. As the Russians retreated they destroyed crops and villages, making it impossible for Napoleon to supply his huge host.

Napoleon managed to inflict an inconclusive defeat on the Russians and seize Moscow, but even the capital had been destroyed by the withdrawing army. After waiting in vain for Emperor Alexander I to surrender, Napoleon fell back from Moscow.

As winter approached, snows slowed the French army, who suffered from starvation and desertion as the Russians harried their long retreat.

7. The Charge of the Light Brigade

Immortalised by Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s poem, this British light cavalry charge during the Battle of Balaclava is one of the most renowned military mistakes in history. After a miscommunication in the chain of command, the Light Brigade was ordered on a frontal assault against a large Russian artillery battery.

As the Light Brigade charged between the Fedyukhin Heights and the Causeway Heights (the so-called ‘Valley of Death’), they faced devastating fire from three sides. They reached the artillery but were driven back, receiving more fire during their retreat.

The Charge of the Light Brigade. Image Credit: Public Domain

In the end, the miscommunication caused nearly 300 casualties in a matter of minutes.

8. Custer at the Battle of the Little Bighorn

The Battle of the Little Bighorn is one of the most well-known engagements in America’s military history. For decades after the battle Lieutenant-Colonel George Custer was considered an American hero for his Last Stand against the forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.

Modern historians have documented Custer’s various mistakes before and during the battle, which led to a decisive victory for the tribal war leaders Crazy Horse and Chief Gall. Notably, Custer seriously misjudged the number of enemies camped before the Little Big Horn River, ignoring his Native scouts’ reports that the encampment was the largest they had ever seen.

‘Custer’s Last Stand’ by Edgar Samuel Paxson. Image Credit: Public Domain

Custer was also supposed to wait for Brigadier General Alfred Terry and Colonel John Gibson’s troops to arrive before launching an attack. Instead, Custer decided to make his move immediately, afraid that the Sioux and Cheyennes would escape if he waited.

Custer was forced to retreat his own battalion to a nearby hill, where they all perished facing repeated assaults.

9. Hitler’s Invasion of the Soviet Union

Operation Barbarossa, Hitler’s failed invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, was one of the most significant military campaigns in history. Following the invasion, Germany was engaged in a war on two fronts which stretched their forces to breaking point.

Image credit: Bundesarchiv / Commons.

Much like Napoleon before him, Hitler underestimated the resolve of the Russians and the difficulties of supplying his forces for the Russian terrain and weather. He believed that his army could seize Russia in only a few months, so his men were not prepared for a harsh Russian winter.

Following the German defeat in the largest battle in history at Stalingrad, Hitler was forced to redeploy troops from the western front to Russia, weakening his hold on Europe. The Axis Powers suffered nearly 1,000,000 casualties during the campaign, which proved a turning point in the Second World War.

10. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor

The USS Arizona burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Image Credut: Public Domain

In the early hours of 7 December 1941 the Japanese launched a pre-emptive strike against the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. The Japanese intended the attack to be a preventative action, hoping to stop the American Pacific Fleet from halting Japanese expansion into Southeast Asia. Instead, the strike drove America to join the Allies and enter the Second World War.

Initially the Pearl Harbor attack, which coincided with other strikes on American naval bases, was a success for the Japanese. 2,400 American personnel were killed, four battleships were sank and many more suffered severe damage.

However, the Japanese failed to deliver a decisive blow, and American popular opinion turned from isolationism towards involvement in the war. Over the coming years America not only helped turn the tide of the conflict in Europe, but also ended the Japanese Empire in the Pacific.