One of the most damaging repercussions of this was the often-brutal suppression of the monasteries. With 1-in-50 of England’s adult male population belonging to a religious order and monasteries owning around a quarter of all cultivated land in the country, the Dissolution of the Monasteries uprooted thousands of lives and changed the political and religious landscape of England forever.

So why did it happen?

Criticism of monastic houses had been growing

Long before Henry VIII‘s break with Rome the monastic houses of England had been under scrutiny, with stories of their lax religious conduct circulating the country’s elite spheres. Although there were vast monastic complexes in almost every town, most of them were only half-full, with those living there barely abiding by strict monastic rules.

The immense wealth of the monasteries also raised eyebrows in the secular world, who believed that their money may be better spent on England’s universities and parish churches, particularly as many spent exorbitantly inside the monasteries’ walls.

High up figures such as Cardinal Wolsey, Thomas Cromwell, and Henry VIII himself sought to limit the powers of the monastic church, and as early as 1519 Wolsey had been investigating corruption in a number of religious houses. In Peterborough Abbey for example, Wolsey found that its abbot had been keeping a mistress and selling goods for a profit and duly had it shut down, instead using the money to found a new college at Oxford.

This idea of corruption would become key in the dissolution when in 1535 Cromwell set about collecting ‘evidence’ of untoward activity within the monasteries. Though some believe these tales to be exaggerated, they included cases of prostitution, drunken monks, and runaway nuns – hardly the behaviour expected from those dedicated to celibacy and virtue.

Henry VIII broke with Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church

The push towards more drastic reform was deeply personal however. In the Spring of 1526, having grown restless with waiting for a son and heir from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII set his sights on marrying the enamouring Anne Boleyn.

Boleyn had recently returned from the French royal court and was now a sparkling courtier, well-versed in the courtly game of love. As such, she refused to become the king’s mistress and would settle only for marriage, lest she be cast aside as her elder sister had been.

Driven by love and an intense anxiety to provide an heir, Henry set about petitioning the Pope to grant him an annulment from his marriage to Catherine in what became known as the ‘King’s Great Matter’.

A portrait of Henry VIII by Holbein thought to be from around 1536.

Image Credit: Public domain

Setting Cardinal Wolsey on the task, a number of challenging factors delayed the proceedings. In 1527, Pope Clement VII was virtually imprisoned by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V during the Sack of Rome, and following this was heavily under his influence. As Charles happened to be Catherine of Aragon’s nephew, he was unwilling to budge on the topic of divorce as not to bring shame and embarrassment to his family.

Eventually Henry realised he was fighting a losing battle and in February 1531, he declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England, meaning he now had jurisdiction on what exactly happened to its religious houses. In 1553, he passed a law forbidding clerics to appeal to ‘foreign tribunals’ in Rome, severing their ties with the Catholic Church on the continent. The first step to the demise of the monasteries was set in motion.

He sought to destroy Papal influence in England

Now in charge of England’s religious landscape, Henry VIII set about ridding it of the Pope’s influence. In 1535, Thomas Cromwell was made Vicar General (Henry’s second in command) and sent letters to all the vicars in England, calling for their support of Henry as the Head of the Church.

Thomas Cromwell by Hans Holbein.

Image Credit: The Frick Collection / CC

Under intense threat, almost all of England’s religious houses agreed to this, with those who initially refused suffering heavy consequences. The friars from the Greenwich house were imprisoned where many died of maltreatment for example, while a number of the Carthusian monks were executed for high treason. Simple obedience was not enough for Henry VIII however, as the monasteries also had something he was desperately in need of – vast wealth.

He needed the immense wealth of the monasteries

After years of lavish spending and costly wars, Henry VIII had frittered away much of his inheritance – an inheritance painstakingly amassed by his frugal father Henry VII.

In 1534, a valuation of the Church was commissioned by Thomas Cromwell known as the Valor Ecclesiasticus, which demanded all religious establishments give authorities an accurate inventory of their lands and revenues. When this was completed, the Crown had for the first time a real image of the Church’s wealth, allowing Henry to set in motion a plan to repurpose their funds for his own use.

In 1536, all small religious houses with an annual income of less than £200 were ordered to be closed under the Act for the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries. Their gold, silver, and valuable materials were confiscated by the Crown and their lands sold off. This initial round of dissolutions made up around 30% of England’s monasteries, yet more were soon to follow.

Catholic revolt pushed further dissolutions

Opposition to Henry’s reforms were widespread in England, particularly in the north where many staunchly Catholic communities persevered. In October 1536, a large uprising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace took place in Yorkshire, in which thousands marched into the city of York to demand a return to the ‘true religion’.

This was soon crushed, and though the king promised clemency for those involved, over 200 were executed for their roles in the unrest. Afterwards, Henry came to view monasticism as synonymous with treachery, as many of the religious houses he had spared in the north had participated in the uprising.

The Pilgrimage of Grace, York.

Image Credit: Public domain

The following year, inducements to the larger abbeys began, with hundreds forfeiting their deeds to the king and signing a document of surrender. In 1539, the Act for the Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries was passed, forcing the remaining bodies to close – this was not without bloodshed however.

When the last abbot of Glastonbury, Richard Whiting, refused to relinquish his abbey, he was hung drawn and quartered and his head displayed over the gate of his now-deserted religious house.

In total around 800 religious institutions were closed in England, Wales, and Ireland, with many of their precious monastic libraries destroyed in the process. The final abbey, Waltham, closed its doors on 23 March 1540.

His allies were rewarded

With the monasteries suppressed, Henry now had vast amounts of wealth and masses of land. This he sold off to nobles and merchants loyal to his cause as a reward for their service, who in turn sold it off to others and became increasingly wealthy.

Not only did this strengthen their loyalties, but also built a wealthy circle of Protestant-leaning nobles around the Crown – something that would become vital in instilling England as a Protestant country. During the reigns of Henry VIII’s children and beyond however, these factions would grow into conflict as the successive monarch’s adapted their own faiths to that of their regime.

With the ruins of hundreds of abbeys still littering England’s landscape – Whitby, Rievaulx and Fountains to name a few – it is hard to escape the memory of the thriving communities that once occupied them. Now mostly atmospheric shells, they sit as a reminder of monastic Britain and the most blatant consequences of the Protestant Reformation.

Berkeley Castle history

Built by William FitzOsbern in 1067, Berkeley Castle was one of many motte-and-bailey castles constructed by the Normans shortly after the Conquest of 1066. Before long it passed into the hands of the Berkeley family and was rebuilt by them in the 12th century.

Throughout its long history, the castle has witnessed a number of dramatic events. It was the centre of a controversy during a period of civil war in Britain known as The Anarchy, when Roger de Berkeley was dispossessed for failing to ally himself with the House of Plantagenet and their heir Empress Matilda.

It was because of this that the castle passed to Robert Fitzharding in 1152, a wealthy burgess of Bristol and supporter of the Plantagenets who founded a new Berkeley line. His descendants still hold the castle now, making it the oldest castle in Britain to be lived in continually by the same family.

Two centuries later, Berkeley Castle was once again a site of intrigue. Early in 1327, Edward II was deposed by his wife Isabella of France, and sent to the castle for imprisonment. On 21 September, he was reportedly murdered within its walls, and though no details are known, popular stories range from suffocation to the use of a red hot poker.

Like many major strongholds in England, Berkeley Castle was also caught up in the English Civil War – the Parliamentarians laid siege to the castle in 1645 and eventually captured it from the Royalist defenders.

Berkeley Castle today

Today, Berkeley Castle provides visitors the opportunity to walk through its thousand-year history, with each room telling part of its fascinating story. The cell where Edward II’s murder is thought to have occurred may be explored, with the echoes of his cries in the 11m-deep dungeon reportedly heard each year on the anniversary of the event.

Berkeley’s sombre past can also been seen in the grand Great Hall, where the last court jester in England, Dickie Pearce, died after falling from the Minstrels’ gallery. In the adjoining chapel, visitors can see some of the more pleasant aspects of the castle however, including painted wooden vaulted ceilings and an illustrated vellum book of Catholic chants.

A walk around the castle reveals a number of tapestries and paintings by English and Dutch Masters, while outside the castle has yet more to offer. Its beautiful Elizabethan gardens are home to Elizabeth I‘s bowling green and a pine that is thought to have originated from a tree at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. To hear the castle’s full history, visitors can embark on an hour-long tour around the site included in the admission price.

Getting to Berkeley Castle

Berkeley Castle is located in Gloucestershire just west of the A38 off the B4066 road, and there is free parking at the site. The nearest train station is Cam and Dursley, 6 miles away, while bus services stop almost directly outside the castle’s entrance.

Despite facing significant obstacles in her career, Payne persisted in her pursuit of knowledge and left a lasting legacy in the field of astronomy.

Early life and education

Cecilia Payne was born on 10 May 1900 in Wendover, England. Her father, Edward, was a London barrister and historian, yet tragically died when Cecilia was 4 years old, leaving her mother Emma to raise their young family.

When she was 12, the family moved to London and Cecilia studied at St Mary’s College, Paddington and thereafter St Paul’s Girls’ School. Despite her academic promise, she faced barriers to pursuing science, a subject women were not typically encouraged to study at the time.

Nevertheless, she persisted and was eventually awarded a scholarship to Newnham College, Cambridge University, where she initially read physics, chemistry and botany, though dropped the latter after her first year.

At Cambridge, Payne attended a lecture by prominent astronomer Arthur Eddington that would change her life and forcefully ignite her passion for astronomy. In her own words:

The result was a complete transformation of my world picture. […]

My world had been so shaken that I experienced something very like a nervous breakdown.

She completed her studies yet did not receive a degree, as Cambridge did not grant degrees to women until 1948.

Revolutionary research

Realising her future in the UK most likely meant becoming a teacher, Payne looked overseas to continue her education. In 1923, she became the second student to join a brand new fellowship programme at Harvard University, spearheaded by astronomer Harlow Shapley and aimed at bringing women into the field. Shapley would become a staunch supporter of Payne for the rest of her career.

At Harvard, Payne began studying the spectra of stars, the patterns of light emitted by stars that can reveal information about their composition. In 1925, she was convinced by Shapley to write a doctoral thesis on her findings, becoming the first person to earn a PhD in astronomy from Radcliffe College of Harvard University. Her thesis, titled “Stellar Atmospheres”, was groundbreaking.

Photograph of Cecilia Payne, undated.

Image Credit: Smithsonian Institution @ Flickr Commons / History Hit

In it, she concluded that hydrogen was the overwhelming constituent of stars, making their elemental composition significantly different to Earth’s. This challenged the current scientific consensus and suggested that hydrogen was the most abundant element in the universe.

When her work was reviewed, astronomer Henry Norris Russell dissuaded her from reaching such conclusions, and she would soon decry her own work as “spurious”. It would not be until Russell himself found evidence to agree with Payne’s conclusions that he realised she was correct.

He published his findings (with very slight mention to Payne), and was generally credited with the conclusions she had reached. Nevertheless, famed astronomer Otto Struve later called her work “the most brilliant PhD thesis ever written in astronomy”.

Challenges

After gaining her doctorate, Payne continued to study the stars in greater detail at Harvard, including stars of high luminosity to better understand the structure of the Milky Way and variable stars in the Magellanic Clouds. Her work on variable stars was undertaken alongside her husband Sergei Gaposchkin, a Russian-born astrophysicist she had met in Germany in 1933 and married the following year, adopting the name Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin.

In the earlier years of her career, women were barred from becoming Professors at Harvard, so Payne was relegated to less prestigious, low-paid research jobs. It would take 30 years since she first published her thesis for Payne to be promoted to full professor at Harvard, becoming the first woman in history to do so.

Later, she was appointed Chair of the Department of Astronomy, also becoming the first woman to head a department at the university. She sent handwritten letters to all the female astronomy students inviting them to a party in the Observatory Library to celebrate.

Cecilia Payne (centre-left) attending the dedication of McDonald Observatory on May 5, 1939. She stands alongside many of the world’s foremost astronomers, including Walter Baade, Edwin Hubble, Jan Oort and Henry Norris Russell.

Image Credit: University of Chicago Photographic Archive, apf2-05059, Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library

Legacy

Over her career Payne wrote several books which continued to unravel the mysteries of the universe. She went on to mentor future generations of astronomers, many of whom themselves made important contributions to the field.

In 1976, while in her 70s, she received the prestigious Henry Norris Russell Lectureship, awarded each year by the American Astronomical Society in recognition of a lifetime of excellence in astronomical research.

In her inspirational speech, she spoke to her lifelong joy of research and discovery:

The reward of the young scientist is the emotional thrill of being the first person in the history of the world to see something or understand something. Nothing can compare with that experience […] The reward of the old scientist is the sense of having seen a vague sketch grow into a masterly landscape

Her immense contributions to our understanding of the universe continue to shape the field of astrophysics to this day and inspire and empower aspiring scientists, particularly women, to pursue their passions and thrive within the scientific community.

Largely viewed as the founder of the Protestant Reformation, Luther transformed the role of the Bible within the Christian faith and launched a religious reform movement to rival the most powerful force in Europe – the Catholic Church.

Here are 10 Facts about Martin Luther and his extraordinary yet controversial legacy:

1. A near-death experience pushed him to become a monk

Martin Luther was born on 10 November 1483 to Hans and Margarethe Luther, in the small town of Eisleben, Saxony. The eldest of a large family, Luther was given a rigorous education and at 17 enrolled at the University of Erfurt.

On 2 July 1505 however, Luther would experience one of the most defining moments of his life when he was caught in a vicious thunderstorm and almost struck by lightning.

Terrified to die without earning his place in heaven, he pledged at that moment that if St Anna would guide him through the storm he would endeavour to become a monk and devote his life to God. Two weeks later he had left university to join the St. Augustine Monastery in Erfurt, melancholically telling friends who dropped him off at the Black Cloister,

“This day you see me, and then, not ever again”

2. While lecturing on theology he made a religious breakthrough

While at the monastery Luther began teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg, and in 1512 achieved a Doctorate in the subject. He lectured on the Bible and its teachings, and between 1515-1517 undertook a set of studies on the Epistle to the Romans.

This effectively encouraged the doctrine of justification on faith alone or sola fide, and claimed that righteousness could only be achieved by faith in God, not through buying indulgences or good works alone.

This had a profound effect on Luther, who described it as:

“the most important piece in the New Testament. It is purest Gospel. It is well worth a Christian’s while not only to memorize it word for word but also to occupy himself with it daily, as though it were the daily bread of the soul”

3. His Ninety-five Theses changed the course of Christianity

When in 1516 Dominican friar Johann Tetzel was sent to Germany to sell indulgences to its peasants in order to fund the grand reconstruction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Luther’s studies suddenly had practical use.

Luther wrote to his bishop protesting this practice in a large tract that would come to be known as his Ninety-five Theses. Though likely intended as a scholarly discussion on church practices rather than an all out attack on Catholic Rome, his tone was not without accusation, as seen in Thesis 86 which boldly asked:

“Why does the pope, whose wealth today is greater than the wealth of the richest Crassus, build the basilica of St. Peter with the money of poor believers rather than with his own money?”

The popular story tells that Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of All Saints’ Church in Wittenberg – an action largely cited as the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.

A painting of Martin Luther nailing his 95 Theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg.

Image Credit: Public domain

4. He founded the Lutheran faith

Luther’s theses spread like wildfire through Germany when in 1518 they were translated from Latin into German by his friends. Aided by the newly-invented printing press, by 1519 they had reached France, England, and Italy, during which time the term ‘Lutheranism’ first came into use.

Initially coined by his enemies as a derogatory term for what they deemed to be heresy, over the course of the 16th century Lutheranism became instilled as the name for the first real Protestant doctrine in the world.

Luther himself disliked the term and preferred to call his philosophy Evangelism, from the Greek term meaning good news, yet as new branches of Protestantism arose it became more important to distinguish exactly to which faith one subscribed.

Today Lutheranism remains one of the largest branches of Protestantism.

5. When he refused to renounce his writing he became a wanted man

Luther soon became a thorn in the papacy’s side. In 1520 Pope Leo X sent a papal bull threatening him with excommunication should he refuse to recant his views – Luther responded by publicly setting it alight, and the following year was indeed excommunicated from the Church on 3 January 1521.

Following this he was summoned to the city of Worms to attend a Diet – a general assembly of the Holy Roman Empire’s estates – where it was again demanded that he renounce his writing. Luther stood by his work however, delivering a rousing speech where he exclaimed:

“I cannot and will not recant anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience.”

He was immediately branded a heretic and outlaw by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. His arrest was ordered, his literature was banned, it became illegal to shelter him, and killing him in broad daylight would bring no consequences.

6. His translation of the New Testament helped to popularise the German language

Luckily for Luther his long-time protector Prince Frederick III, Elector of Saxony had a plan, and arranged for his party to be ‘kidnapped’ by highwaymen and secretly whisked away to Wartburg Castle in Eisenach. Whilst there he grew a beard and took up the disguise of ‘Junker Jörg’, and resolved to undertake what he believed to be a vitally important task – translating the New Testament from Greek into German.

Over an astounding 11 weeks Luther single-handedly finished the translation, averaging around 1,800 words per day. Published in 1522 in the common German language, this made the Bible’s teachings more accessible to the German public, who in turn would be less dependant on priests to read the word of God in Latin during Catholic ceremonies.

Moreover, the popularity of Luther’s translation helped to standardise the German language, at a time when many different tongues were spoken throughout the German territories, and encouraged a similar English translation – the Tyndale Bible.

7. The German Peasants’ War was partly built on his rhetoric, yet he vehemently opposed it

While Luther was in exile at Wartburg Castle, radical reform swept through Wittenberg on an unpredicted scale with relentless unrest felt throughout. The town council sent Luther a desperate message to return, and he felt it was his moral duty to follow through, writing:

“During my absence, Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word.”

Through his preaching the revolts in the city quietened, however in the surrounding areas they only continued to grow. A series of Peasants’ Wars resulted, incorporating some of the Reformation’s rhetoric and principles in their demand for influence and freedom. Many believed Luther would support the revolts, yet he was instead enraged by the peasants’ conduct and publicly decried their actions, writing:

“Fine Christians they are! I think there is not a devil left in hell; they have all gone into the peasants. Their raving has gone beyond all measure.”

8. His marriage set a powerful precedent

In 1523 Luther was contacted by a young nun from the Cistercian monastery of Marienthron in Nimbschen. The nun, named Katharina von Bora, had learnt of the growing religious reform movement and sought to escape her mundane life in the nunnery.

Luther arranged for von Bora and several others to be smuggled out of Marienthron amongst barrels of herring, yet when all were accounted for in Wittenberg only she was left – and she had her sights set on marrying Luther.

Katharina von Bora, Luther’s wife, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1526.

Image Credit: Public domain

Despite much deliberation on its repercussions, the two were married on 13 June 1525 and took up residence in the “Black Cloister”, where von Bora quickly took over administration of its vast holdings. The marriage was a happy one, with Luther calling her the ‘morning star of Wittenberg’, and the pair had six children together.

Though clergy had married before, Luther’s influence set the precedent for the marriage of religious men in the Protestant Church, and helped to shape its views on spousal roles.

9. He was a hymnodist

Martin Luther believed music to be one of the key methods of developing faith and as such was a prolific hymnodist, penning dozens of hymns over his lifetime. He combined folk music with high art and wrote for all classes, ages, and genders, writing lyrics on the subjects of work, school, and public life.

His hymns were highly accessible and written in German, with communal song in Protestant church services highly encouraged, as Luther believed music ‘controls our hearts, minds and spirits’.

10. His legacy is mixed

Despite Luther’s revolutionary role in founding Protestantism and helping to stamp out the abuses of the Catholic Church, his legacy also had some extremely sinister repercussions. An aspect often overlooked in Luther’s story of devout Christian faith was his violent decries of other religions.

He was particularly damning of the Jewish faith, buying into the cultural tradition that the Jews had betrayed and murdered Jesus Christ, and often advocated brutal violence against them. Due to these violent anti-Semitic beliefs many historians have since made links between his work and the growing anti-Semitism of the Nazi Party during the Third Reich.

Though Luther’s damnation came on religious grounds and the Nazis’ on racial, his intrinsic position in Germany’s intellectual history allowed members of the Nazi Party to use it as a reference to support their own anti-Semitic policies.

‘…though I cannot be Henry the Fifth, or Charles the Second…I endeavour to be Margaret the First’

Poet, philosopher, natural scientist and all-round trailblazer – Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle cuts a sharp feminine silhouette across the intellectual landscape of the 17th century.

Her bold personality, persistent fame-seeking and insertion of herself into the male realm of academia caused controversy among her peers, yet in a time where women were expected to be silent and submissive, Margaret’s voice speaks loud and clear.

Childhood

Born in 1623 to a large family of substantial wealth in Essex, Margaret was from the outset of her life surrounded by a strong female influence and opportunities for learning. Following her father’s death, her mother insisted on running their household with virtually no male help, and Margaret revered her as an immensely strong woman.

With a private tutor and vast library at her disposal, the young Margaret began cultivating her knowledge of the world, despite women being widely discouraged from doing so. She shared a very close relationship with all of her siblings and would discuss her reading with them, often asking her scholarly older brother to explain difficult texts and concepts when needed.

Her penchant for writing began at this early age too, in collections of work she called her ‘baby books’.

An exiled court

At the age of 20, she implored her mother to let her join the royal household of Queen Henrietta Maria. This request was granted, and at the reluctance of her siblings, Margaret left the family home.

Henrietta Maria, by Anthony Van Dyck, c.1632-35, (Image Credit: Public Domain)

In 1644 however, Margaret would be taken further from her family. As the Civil War intensified, the queen and her household were forced into exile at Louis XIV’s court in France. Though Margaret was confident and eloquent around her siblings, she struggled immensely whilst on the continent, developing a crippling shyness.

This may have been due to what she termed a ‘soft, melting, solitary, and contemplating melancholy’ – a condition that brought on a ‘chill paleness’, erratic gestures and an inability to speak in public.

The Marquess

‘…where I place a particular affection, I love extraordinarily and constantly’

She soon found a saving grace in courtier William Cavendish, Marquess (and later Duke) of Newcastle, who found her bashfulness endearing. Though she did ‘dread marriage’ and ‘shunned men’s company’, Margaret fell deeply in love with Cavendish and ‘had not the power to refuse him’ due to her affections. 

Grandson of eminent Elizabethan lady Bess of Hardwick, Cavendish would become one of Margaret’s greatest supporters, friends, and mentors, encouraging her love of knowledge and funding her publications.

In her writing she couldn’t help but praise him, gushing over his ‘courage above danger’, ‘justice above bribes’ and ‘friendship above self-interest’. He was ‘manly without formality’, quick-witted and interesting, with a ‘noble nature and sweet disposition’. He was the only man she ever loved.

William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle by William Larkin, 1610 (Photo Credit: Public Domain)

While their staunch Royalism preventing their return to England following the Civil War, the couple lived in Paris, Rotterdam and Antwerp mixing with intellectuals like René Descartes and Thomas Hobbes. This circle would have a large impact on Margaret’s philosophical ideas, expanding her modes of thought outward.

Poet, scientist, philosopher

In her writing, Margaret tackled an immense number of concepts. Couched through the ‘fanciful’ medium of poetry, she pondered atoms, the motion of the sun and the physics of sound. She staged philosophical conversations between love and hate, the body and mind, an axeman and an oak tree, and even discussed animal rights.

Though she often insisted her works were no more than playful musings, the fact that she was engaged and contemplating such ideas is a feat in itself. Throughout all of her writing, she refused to use a pseudonym as was common with female writers, and ascribed her name to every word and opinion.

Margaret Cavendish, by Unknown (Image Credit: Public Domain)

In 1667, her scientific interest was recognised when she was the first woman to be invited to watch the Royal Society of London’s live experiments. Though she had previously ridiculed the men conducting these experiments, hilariously likening them to ‘boys that play with watery bubbles, or fling dust into each others’ eyes’ she was highly impressed with what she saw.

Though it would appear she had her foot in the door, women would not be invited to join the society for nearly 300 more years.

The Blazing World

In 1666, Margaret published what is perhaps her most well-known work, a utopian novel called ‘The Blazing World’. This work combined her interest in science, with her love of fiction and strong female-centric attitude. It is often hailed as the earliest piece of science fiction, and depicts the existence of an alternate universe reachable via the North Pole.

In the novel, a shipwrecked woman finds herself Empress of this new world, populated largely by anthropomorphic animals, before forming an army and returning to wage war on her home kingdom.

Amazingly, in this novel Margaret predicts many inventions that would not come to pass for hundreds of years, such as flying aircrafts and the steam engine, and does so with a woman in the lead.

‘May your Wit be quick, and your Speech ready’

Through navigating these significantly male channels of work, Margaret often discussed gender roles and her deviation from them, vouching for the capabilities of women. At the outset of her 1653 publication, ‘Poems, and Fancies’, she addressed her fellow women asking that they support her work should she face criticism:

‘Therefore pray strengthen my side, in defending my book; for I know Women’s Tongues are as sharp, as two-edged swords, and wound as much, when they are anger’d. And in this Battle may your Wit be quick, and your Speech ready, and your Arguments so strong, as to beat them out of the Field of Dispute.’

Frontispiece to ‘Plays, Never before Printed’ featuring Margaret in the centre, by Pieter Louis van Schuppen, after Abraham Diepenbeeck, 1655-58, National Portrait Galley (Image Credit: CC)

Not one to hold back, in her ‘Female Orations’ she goes further as to scathingly attack the patriarchy: 

‘Men are so Unconscionable and Cruel against us, as they Endeavour to Bar us of all Sorts or Kinds of Liberty…[they] would fain Bury us in their Houses or Beds, as in a Grave; the truth is, we Live like Bats or Owls, Labour like Beasts, and Die like Worms.’

Such boldness was uncommon in print by a woman. Though she expected to receive vast criticisms for her work, she saw it as vital in expanding the female horizon, stating: ‘if I burn, I desire to die your Martyr’.

Mad Madge?

With her wide-reaching ideas laid out for all to read, Margaret attracted a lot of attention. Many contemporary accounts depicted her as something of a mad woman, ascribing her the nickname ‘Mad Madge’. Her eccentric nature and flamboyant dress-sense furthered this image, to much critique.

Samuel Pepys referred to her as ‘a mad, conceited, ridiculous woman’, while fellow writer Dorothy Osbourne commented that there were ‘soberer people in Bedlam’! 

Samuel Pepys by John Hayls, 1666 (Image Credit: Public Domain)

Fame-seeker

‘For all I desire, is Fame, and Fame is nothing but a great noise’

Despite her bashful nature as young woman, Margaret had a tendency to revel in her fame, writing on many occasions that it was her life ambition to be renown.

At 33, she published her autobiography. Intended both to counter her critics and put her legacy to paper, it gave description of her lineage, personality, and political stance, and is a rich glance into the 17th century female psyche.

When considering the necessity of the work, she maintained that as Caesar and Ovid both wrote autobiographies, ‘I know no reason I may not do it as well’.

As such a lively and forward-thinking character, is it unfortunate that she is so unknown to the modern audience. Like many women in history who dared to speak their mind, or worse yet put it to paper, Margaret’s legacy has long been that of a delusional, bawdy woman, obsessed with vanity and of little consequence. Nevertheless, though she belonged to the ‘other’ of the 17th century, her passions and ideas find a home amongst modern women today.

Since her execution in 1431, she has come to serve as a figurehead for a litany of ideals – from French nationalism to feminism, to the simple belief that anyone, no matter how humble, can achieve great things if accompanied by belief.

From lowly origins

At the time of Joan of Arc’s birth, France had been wracked by 90 years of conflict and was almost at a point of desperation in the aptly-named Hundred Years War. Crushingly defeated at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, ascendancy was gained by the English over France in the coming years.

So complete was their victory that in 1420 the French heir Charles of Valois was disinherited and replaced by the English warrior-king Henry V, and for a time it seemed that France was finished. The fortunes of the war began to turn however when Henry died just a year later.

Henry V’s reign saw English ascendancy in the Hundred Years’ War. Credit: National Portrait Gallery

As Henry’s son, the future Henry VI, was still an infant, suddenly the beleaguered French were given an opportunity to take back power – if given the inspiration to do so. Sensationally, this would come in the form of an illiterate peasant girl.

Joan’s family, particularly her mother, were deeply pious and this strong foundational belief in Catholicism was imparted to their daughter. Joan had also seen her fair share of conflict during the war, including on one occasion when her village was burnt in a raid, and though she lived in an area controlled by England’s Burgundian allies, her family were firmly in support of the French crown.

At the age of 13, whilst standing in her father’s garden, she suddenly began experiencing visions of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret. They informed her that it was her destiny to help the Dauphin reclaim his throne and expel the English from France.

On God’s mission

Deciding that she had been sent a mission of overwhelming importance by God, Joan persuaded the local court to annul her arranged marriage in 1428, and made her way to Vaucouleurs – a local stronghold that housed supporters loyal to Charles of Valois, the uncrowned King of France.

She attempted to petition the garrison commander Robert de Baudricourt to provide her an armed escort to the royal court at Chinon, yet was sarcastically turned away. Returning months later, she convinced two of Baudricourt’s soldiers to permit her a second audience, and whilst there correctly predicted a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray – before news had even reached Vaucouleurs.

Learn more about the woman who took upon herself the mission to save France in this short film, Warrior Women: Joan of Arc. Watch Now

Now convinced of her divine gift, Baudricourt allowed her passage to Chinon, the site of Charles’ palace. The journey would be all but safe however, and as a precaution she cropped her hair and dressed in boys clothes, disguising herself as a male soldier.

Saviour of France

Unsurprisingly, Charles was sceptical of the 17-year old girl that arrived unannounced at his court. Joan is supposed to have said something to him that only a messenger from God could have known however, and won him over as she had Baudricourt.

She later refused to confess what she told him, yet Charles was impressed enough to admit the teenage girl into his war councils, where she stood alongside the most powerful and venerable men in the kingdom.

Joan promised Charles that she would see him crowned in the city of Reims like his forebears, though first the English siege of Orléans would have to be lifted. Despite the vociferous protests of his other councillors, Charles gave Joan command of an army in March 1429, and dressed in white armour and on a white horse, she led them to relieve the city.

Reims Cathedral was the historic site of the crowning of France’s kings. Credit: Wikimedia Commons

A number of assaults on the besiegers followed, driving them away from the city and across the Loire river. After months under siege, Orléans was freed in just 9 days, and when Joan entered the city she was met with jubilation. This miraculous result proved to many Joan’s divine gifts, and she joined Charles on campaign as town after town were liberated from the English.

Whether or not she was truly led by divine visions, Joan’s devout faith in her calling often pushed her to take risks in battle no professional soldier would, and her presence in the war effort had a vital impact on the morale of the French. To the English however, she appeared to be an agent of the Devil.

A change in fortune

In July 1429, Charles was crowned as Charles VII in Reims Cathedral. At this moment of triumph however, Joan’s fortunes began to turn as a number of military blunders soon followed, largely supposed to be the fault of French Grand Chamberlain Georges de La Trémoille.

At the end of a brief truce between France and England in 1430, Joan was ordered to defend the town of Compiégne in northern France, under siege by English and Burgundian forces. On 23 May, whilst moving to attack a camp of Burgundians, Joan’s party was ambushed and she was pulled from her horse by an archer. Soon imprisoned at Beaurevoir Castle, she made a number of escape attempts including on one occasion jumping 70ft from her prison tower, less she be turned over to her sworn enemies – the English.

These attempts were in vain however, and soon she was moved to Rouen Castle and indeed placed into the custody of the English, who had purchased her capture for 10,000 livres. A number of rescue missions by the French Armagnac faction failed, and despite Charles VII’s vow to ‘exact vengeance’ on Burgundian troops and both ‘the English and women of England’, Joan would not escape her captors.

Trial and execution

In 1431, Joan was put on trial for a host of crimes from heresy to cross-dressing, the latter being a supposed sign of devil-worship. Throughout many days of questioning she presented herself with seemingly God-given calm and confidence, stating:

“Everything I have done I have done at the instruction of my voices”

On 24 May she was taken to the scaffold and told she would die immediately unless she denied her claims of divine guidance and gave up wearing men’s attire. She signed the warrant, yet 4 days later recanted and again adopted men’s clothing.

A number of reports give reason for this, chief of which stated that her adoption of men’s attire (which she tied firmly to herself with rope) prevented her from being raped by her guards, while another capitulated that the guards forced her to wear them by taking away the women’s clothing she had been provided.

Whether of her own accord or through conspiracy, it was this simple act that branded Joan of Arc a witch and had her sentenced to death for ‘relapsing into heresy’.

Captured by Burgundian forces, Joan was burned on charges of heresy in 1431. Credit: State Hermitage Museum

An enduring legacy

On 30 May 1431 she was burnt at the stake at the Old Marketplace in Rouen at the age of just 19. In death and martyrdom however, Joan would prove to be just as powerful. A Christ-like symbol of sacrifice and purity, she continued to inspire Frenchmen over the following decades as they finally expelled the English and ended the war in 1453.

Following his victory Charles had Joan’s name cleared of heresy, and centuries later Napoleon would call on her to become the national symbol of France. She was officially canonised in 1920 as a patron saint, and remains a source of inspiration worldwide for her courage, perseverance, and unquenchable vision.

Clarence House history

Built from 1825 to 1827 next to St James’s Palace, Clarence House’s prime location made it the ideal residence for members of the royal family. The first member of the monarchy to live there was King William IV who commissioned it while Duke of Clarence, thus giving it its name. His sister Princess Augusta Sophia resided there after him, followed by Queen Victoria‘s mother from 1840 to 1866.

Following, two of Victoria’s sons lived at Clarence at different times. The first was her second son Prince Alfred, who resided there until his death in 1900, followed by his younger brother Arthur until 1942. While Arthur lived there, Clarence House held the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies until in 1939 London’s universities were evacuated in the wake of the Blitz, when it was moved to Cambridge.

During World War Two it became the headquarters of the Red Cross and St John Ambulance Brigade following Prince Arthur’s death in 1942, before in 1947 the newlywed Princess Elizabeth and Prince Philip moved to Clarence, where Princess Anne was born in 1950.

Following Elizabeth’s ascension to the throne in 1953, she moved to Buckingham Palace and The Queen Mother moved into Clarence House, residing there for almost 50 years. In recent years, both Prince William and Prince Harry have lived at Clarence House, while today it is one of King Charles and Queen Camilla’s homes.

Clarence House today

Today Clarence House is open to the public during the summer months. Guided tours of the ground floor may be enjoyed, which explore 5 of its opulent rooms and the adjoining spaces.

These remain the same condition as when Queen Elizabeth II lived there, with much of her art and furniture collection still on display. Alongside this, the Prince of Wales’ art collection and objects from the wider Royal Collection may also be found throughout the house, enriching it with all the splendour of a British royal residence.

Getting to Clarence House

Clarence House is located in London near to Buckingham Palace, just off The Mall. The nearest Underground stations are Green Park and St James’s Park, both within a 15-minute walk away, while the nearest train station is London Victoria, also a 15-minute walk away. A number of bus services also run to Green Park, a 7-minute walk away.

Kensington Palace history

Originally built for the Earl of Nottingham, Kensington Palace was acquired by King William III in 1689 after he and his wife, Mary II, had taken the throne from her father, James II, during the Glorious Revolution. They employed Christopher Wren to rebuild and improve it, and in the coming years a number of monarchs would too enjoy the splendour of Kensington.

These included Queen Anne and her husband Prince George of Denmark, as well as her successor to the British throne, George I. While on the throne he had new state rooms built and his daughter-in-law Queen Caroline, wife of George II, later had the magnificent gardens laid out.

In the time of George III, Kensington Palace ceased to be the monarch’s residence, and instead housed a host of more minor royals. It was here that the Duke and Duchess of Kent (son and daughter-in-law of George III) made their home, and in 1819 their daughter Victoria was born there.

Victoria spent a somewhat miserable childhood at Kensington under an elaborate set of rules and protocols known as the ‘Kensington System’, devised by her mother and Sir John Conroy to isolate the young girl and ensure her dependency on them.

It was at Kensington Palace however that she was informed of the death of her uncle William IV, and that subsequently she was Queen of the United Kingdom at the tender age of 18. Following this she was able to break away from Kensington and became the first monarch to occupy Buckingham Palace.

In later years Kensington Palace continued to be used as a residence for minor royals during their stays in London. Prince Albert (later Edward VII) famously dubbed it ‘the aunt heap’ and, somewhat more cruelly, it was also called the ‘Dowagers’ Dumping Ground’.

Most recently, Kensington Palace has been the home of the late Princess Margaret, the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester, Prince and Princess of Kent, and the late Princess Diana, who used it as her chief residence following her divorce from Prince Charles.

Kensington Palace today

Today, Kensington Palace remains the royal residence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, alongside a number of other members of the royal family. It is also open to visitors under the remit of Historic Royal Palaces however, with 4 different routes available to explore its many intriguing rooms.

Exhibits detail the Palace’s many notable past residents, with collections of their gowns, antique furniture, and other memorabilia on display. From the courts of George I and II to the dazzling wardrobes of Elizabeth II, Princess Margaret, and Princess Diana, a trip to Kensington Palace truly breathes life into some of British history’s most famous figures.

Visitors to Kensington Palace can also see a number of rooms associated with Queen Victoria, including the bedroom where she was first informed of her ascension to the throne.

Getting to Kensington Palace

Kensington Palace is located in Kensington Gardens in London and has good public transport links. The nearest Underground stations are High Street Kensington and Queensway, both a 10-minute walk away, while the nearest train station is Paddington, a 20-minute walk away.

Bus routes 70, 94 and 148 stop along Bayswater Road, while routes 9, 49, 52, 70 and 452 stop along Kensington High Street.

From Paris to Tokyo, we take a journey through history to explore the oldest department stores still in operation around the world. These 5 iconic stores have withstood the challenges of time, adapting and evolving to remain relevant in an ever-changing retail landscape.

1. Mitsukoshi, Tokyo, Japan (1673)

Technically the oldest store on our list, Mitsukoshi is a Japanese department store chain that was originally founded in 1673 under the name Echigoya, and sold kimono in Edo (now Tokyo). A decade later in 1683, Echigoya adopted a new approach to marketing. Rather than selling door-to-door, they set up a store where buyers could purchase goods on the spot with cash.

The store gradually expanded its offerings over the years and was officially recognised as a department store in 1904. Today, Mitsukoshi is one of the largest and most prestigious department store chains in Japan, known for its high-quality products and exceptional customer service.

In this ukiyo-e print designed by Utagawa Hiroshige (1797–1858), Echigoya is featured as a landmark. The Mitsukoshi headquarters are located on the left side of the street.

Image Credit: Public domain

2. Kendals, Manchester, UK (1796)

Located in the city at the heart of the Industrial Revolution, Kendals (formerly Kendal Milne & Faulkner) in Manchester lays claim to being one of the first department stores, and is still known to many of its customers as Kendals, despite its 2005 name change to House of Fraser.

The Manchester institution dates back to 1836 but had been trading as Watts Bazaar since 1796. At its zenith the store had buildings on both sides of Deansgate linked by a subterranean passage known as “Kendals Arcade”, and an art nouveau tiled food hall.

The store was especially known for its emphasis on quality and style over low prices, giving it the nickname “the Harrods of the North”, although this was due in part to Harrods acquiring the store in 1919. It was even renamed Harrods for a period in the 1920s, but the name swiftly reverted to Kendal Milne following protests from customers and staff.

3. Le Bon Marché, Paris, France (1838)

Located on Rive Gauche in Paris, Le Bon Marché was opened in 1838 as a small novelty shop. In 1852, entrepreneur Aristide Boucicaut and his wife Marguerite became investors, transforming it into a sprawling department store.

Boucicaut came up with an innovative marketing plan, instituting fixed prices and guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds, advertising and a wider variety of merchandise. The use of fixed prices replaced the system of haggling, then commonly used in dry goods stores.

Expanding at a rapid rate, Le Bon Marché pioneered a way of shopping in Europe: a one-stop multi-story shop, allowing customers to purchase everything they needed under one roof instead of travelling across Paris for various goods. Today it remains an essential destination for anyone looking to experience the best of Parisian style and culture.

Drawing of the department store Le Bon Marché in Paris, 19th century.

Image Credit: Public domain

4. David Jones, Sydney, Australia (1838)

David Jones was founded in Sydney in 1838 by (you guessed it) David Jones, a Welsh immigrant who had previously worked as a tailor. Initially, the store was a small drapery shop, but it quickly grew in size and popularity, becoming one of the premier retailers in Sydney by the end of the 19th century.

Over the years, David Jones has expanded its offerings to include a wide range of luxury goods, including designer clothing, accessories, beauty products, and home goods. The store has also become known for its strong focus on providing a personalised shopping experience for its customers. It is also the oldest continuously-operating department store in the world still trading under its original name.

5. Harrods, London, UK (1849)

Harrods is one of the oldest and most iconic department stores in the world, having been founded in 1849 in London by Charles Henry Harrod. From its humble beginnings as a small grocery store (the origins of which go back to 1832), the store has grown into a sprawling retail empire, offering a wide range of luxury products and services.

On 16 November 1898, Harrods debuted England’s first “moving staircase” (escalator) in their Brompton Road stores. Nervous customers were offered brandy at the top to revive them after their ‘ordeal’!

Today, Harrods is known for its opulent interior design and exceptional customer service, which has helped to cement its reputation as a global premier shopping destinations. The store continues to thrive, attracting millions of visitors each year and remaining a symbol of luxury and sophistication for shoppers around the world.

Harrods department store in London, circa 1905.

Image Credit: Public domain

I realise that patriotism is not enough. I must have no hatred or bitterness towards anyone.

The night before her execution by German firing squad, Edith Cavell uttered these words to her private chaplain. Convicted of treason by the German government for smuggling Allied troops out of Belgium, Cavell’s courage and dedication to saving others never wavered.

Working as a nurse in World War One, she tended to the wounded of both sides of the conflict, and helped save the lives of over 200 Allied soldiers fleeing German occupation. Here are 10 facts about the woman whose story has inspired the world for over 100 years.

1. She was born and raised in Norwich

Edith Cavell was born on 4 December 1865 in Swardeston near Norwich, where her father had been vicar for 45 years.

She attended Norwich High School for Girls before moving to boarding schools in Somerset and Peterborough, and was a talented painter. She also had a knack for French – a skill that would come in handy in her future work on the continent.

Though opportunities for female employment were scarce in the 19th century, the young Cavell was determined to make a difference. In a prophetic letter to her cousin, she wrote “some day, somehow, I am going to do something useful. I don’t know what it will be. I only know that it will be something for people. They are, most of them, so helpless, so hurt and so unhappy.”

After completing her studies she became a governess, and between the ages of 25 and 30 worked for a family in Brussels teaching their 4 young children.

2. Her career in nursing began close to home

In 1895, she returned home to care for her seriously ill father, and following his recovery resolved to become a nurse. She applied to study at the London Hospital, eventually becoming a private travelling nurse. This required treating patients in their homes with conditions such as cancer, appendicitis, gout and pneumonia, and for her role in assisting the typhoid outbreak in Maidstone in 1897, she received the Maidstone Medal.

Cavell gained valuable experience working in hospitals all over the country, from Shoreditch Infirmary to institutions in Manchester and Salford, before fatefully being called abroad.

3. She was involved in pioneering work on the continent

In 1907, Antoine Depage invited Cavell to be matron of Brussels’ first nursing school, L’École Belge d’Infirmières Diplômées. With experience in Brussels and proficiency in French, Cavell was a triumph and in a mere year became responsible for training nurses for 3 hospitals, 24 schools, and 13 nurseries.

Depage believed that the country’s religious institutions were not keeping up with modern medicinal practices, and in 1910 established a new secular hospital in Saint-Gilles, Brussels. Cavell was asked to be the matron of this establishment, and that same year set up a nursing journal, L’infirmière. With her help, the nursing profession established a good foothold in Belgium, and she is often considered the mother of the profession in that country.

Edith Cavell (centre) with a group of her student nurses in Brussels (Image Credit: Imperial War Museums / Public Domain)

4. When war broke out she aided wounded troops on both sides

When World War One broke out in 1914, Cavell was back in Britain visiting her now-widowed mother. Rather than remain in safety, she was determined to return to her clinic in Belgium, informing relatives “at a time like this, I am more needed than ever.”

By the winter of 1914, Belgium was almost completely overrun by German troops. Cavell continued to work from her clinic, which had now been turned into a hospital for wounded troops by the Red Cross, and nursed both Allied and German troops back to health. She instructed her staff to treat each soldier with equal compassion and kindness, no matter what side of the war they fought on.

5. She joined the Belgian Resistance, and helped to save hundreds of lives

As the war continued on in Europe, Cavell began smuggling wounded British and French troops out from behind enemy lines and into neutral Holland, preventing them from being captured. 

Where possible, she also manoeuvred young Belgian men out of the country so that they would not be called up to fight and possibly die in the increasingly bloody war. She provided them with money, fake identification cards and secret passwords to ensure their safety upon escape, and is credited with saving over 200 men in the process, despite this being against German military law.

6. It has been suggested that she was part of the British Secret Intelligence Service

Though vehemently denied by the British government following her death, it has been suggested that Cavell was in fact working for the British intelligence agency while in Belgium. Key members of her network were in touch with Allied intelligence agencies and she was known to use secret messages, as former head of MI5 Stella Rimington has since revealed.

The widespread use of her image in war propaganda following her execution however strove to paint her as a martyr and a victim of senseless violence – revealing her to be a spy did not fit into this narrative.

7. She was eventually arrested and charged with treason by the German government

In August 1915, a Belgian spy discovered Cavell’s secret tunnels beneath the hospital and reported her to German officials. She was arrested on 3 August and imprisoned in Saint-Gilles prison for 10 weeks, the final two being held in solitary confinement. 

At her trial, she admitted to her role in transporting Allied troops out of Belgium, maintaining complete honesty and dignified composure.

The trial lasted only two days, and Cavell was soon convicted of ‘conveying troops to the enemy’, an offence punishable by death in times of war. Despite not being a German native, Cavell was charged with war treason and sentenced to execution.

8. There was international outcry over her arrest

All over the world, public outrage was heard for Cavell’s sentence. With political tensions rife, the British government felt powerless to help, with Lord Robert Cecil, Under-Secretary of Foreign Affairs, advising that “Any representation by us will do her more harm than good.”

The USA however, having not yet joined the war, felt in a position to apply diplomatic pressure. They informed the German government that going through with Cavell’s execution would only harm their already damaged reputation, while the Spanish embassy also fought tirelessly on her behalf.

These efforts would be in vain however. The German government believed to relinquish Cavell’s sentence would only encourage other female resistance fighters to act without fear of repercussion.

9. She was executed at dawn on 12 October 1915

At 7:00am on 12 October, 1915 Edith Cavell was executed by firing squad at the Tir national shooting range in Schaerbeek, Belgium. She died alongside fellow resistance fighter Philippe Baucq, who too aided wounded Allied troops in escaping the country. The night before her execution, she told her Anglican chaplain Stirling Gahan: “I have no fear nor shrinking. I have seen death so often that it is not strange or fearful to me”.

Her immense bravery in the face of death has been a noted aspect of her story since it occurred, with her words inspiring generations of Britons to come. Understanding her own sacrifice, she at last relayed to the German prison chaplain: “I am glad to die for my country.”

10. A state funeral was held for her at Westminster Abbey

She was buried in Belgium immediately after her death. At the end of the war, her body was exhumed and repatriated to Britain, where a state funeral was held at Westminster Abbey on 15 May, 1919. Atop her coffin, a wreath given by Queen Alexandra was placed, the card reading:

In memory of our brave, heroic, never to be forgotten Miss Cavell. Life’s race well run, Life’s work well done, Life’s crown well won, now comes rest. From Alexandra.

Though over 100 years have passed since her death, Edith Cavell’s inspiring story of bravery is still felt all around the world. In 1920, a statue of her was unveiled near Trafalgar Square, around the top of which 4 words may be found – Humanity, Fortitude, Devotion and Sacrifice. They are a reminder on an incredible woman’s resolve to help those in need, at the cost of her own life.

The Edith Cavell Memorial near Trafalgar Square, London (Image Credit: Prioryman / CC)