Léonie Chao-Fong | History Hit https://www.historyhit.com Wed, 29 Jan 2025 16:26:36 +0000 en-GB hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=5.9.9 The 8 Most Important Gods and Goddesses of the Aztec Empire https://www.historyhit.com/most-important-gods-and-goddesses-of-the-aztec-empire/ Sat, 24 Jun 2023 08:15:51 +0000 http://histohit.local/most-important-gods-and-goddesses-of-the-aztec-empire/ Continued]]> The Aztecs believed in a complex and diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses. In fact, scholars have identified more than 200 deities within Aztec religion.

In 1325 AD, the Aztec people moved to an island in Lake Texcoco to set up their capital, Tenochtitlán. The story goes that they saw an eagle holding a rattlesnake in its talons, perched on a cactus. Believing this vision was a prophesy sent by the god Huitzilopochtli, they decided to build their new home on that exact site. And so the city of Tenochtitlán was founded.

To this day, this story of their great migration from their legendary home of Aztalan is pictured on the coat of arms of Mexico. It is clear, then, that mythology and religion played a key role in Aztec culture.

The Aztec gods were divided into three groups, each supervising one aspect of the universe: weather, agriculture and warfare. Here are 8 of the most important Aztec gods and goddesses.

1. Huitzilopochtli – ‘The Hummingbird of the South’

Huitzilopochtli was the father of the Aztecs and the supreme god for the Méxica. His nagual or animal spirit was the eagle. Unlike many other Aztec deities, Huitzilopochtli was intrinsically a Mexica deity with no clear equivalent in earlier Mesoamerican cultures.

Huitzilopochtli, as depicted in the ‘Tovar Codex’

Image Credit: John Carter Brown Library, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

He was also the Aztec god of war and the Aztec sun god, and of Tenochtitlán. This intrinsically tied up the “hunger” of gods with the Aztec penchant for ritual war. His shrine sat on top of the pyramid of Templo Mayor in the Aztec capital, and was decorated with skulls and painted red to represent blood.

In Aztec mythology, Huitzilopochtli was engaged in a sibling rivalry with his sister and the goddess of the moon, Coyolxauhqui. And so the sun and the moon were in a constant battle for control of the sky. Huitzilopochtli was believed to be accompanied by the spirits of fallen warrior, whose spirits would return to earth as hummingbirds, and the spirits of women who died during childbirth.

2. Tezcatlipoca – ‘The Smoking Mirror’

Huitzilopochtli’s rival as the most important Aztec god was Tezcatlipoca: god of the nocturnal sky, of ancestral memory, and of time. His nagual was the jaguar. Tezcatlipoca was one of the most important gods in post-classic Mesoamerican culture and the supreme deity for the Toltecs – Nahua-speaking warriors from the north.

Aztecs believed that Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca together created the world. However Tezcatlipoca represented an evil power, often associated with death and cold. The eternal antithesis of his brother Quetzalcóatl, the lord of the night carries with him an obsidian mirror. In Nahuatl, his name translates to “smoking mirror”.

3. Quetzalcoatl – ‘The Feathered Serpent’

Tezcatlipoca’s brother Quetzalcoatl was the god of winds and rain, intelligence and self-reflection. He plays a key role in other Mesoamerican cultures such as Teotihuacan and the Maya.

His nagual was a mix of bird and rattlesnake, his name combining the Nahuatl words for quetzal (“the emerald plumed bird”) and coatl (“serpent”). As the patron of science and learning, Quetzalcoatl invented the calendar and books. He was also identified with the planet Venus.

With his dog-headed companion Xolotl, Quetzalcoatl was said to have descended to the land of death to gather the bones of the ancient dead. He then infused the bones with his own blood, regenerating mankind.

 

4. Coatlicue – ‘The Serpent Skirt’

Venerated as the “mother of gods and mortals”, Coatlicue was the feminine god who gave birth to the stars and moon. Her face was made up of two fanged serpents, her skirt of interwoven snakes and she wore a necklace of hands, hearts and a skull.

Coatlicue was as feared as she was beloved, symbolising the antiquity of earth worship and of childbirth. She was also associated with warfare, governance and agriculture.

In Aztec mythology, Coatlicue was a priestess who was sweeping a shrine on the legendary sacred mountain Coatepec, when a ball of feathers fell from the sky and impregnated her. The resulting child was Huitzilopochtli, god of war.

5. Tonatiuh – ‘The Turquoise Lord’

Tonatiuh was the sun god, depicted as a symbolic sun disk, or sometimes as a squatting man with a disk on his back. Tonatiuh was a nourishing deity who required sacrificial blood to provide warmth to the people. He was also the patron of warriors.

In many post-classic Mesoamerican cultures, the hearts of sacrificial victims were seen as symbolic nourishment for the sun. Tonatiuh was the god most associated with ritual sacrifice; he needed the nourishment to defeat darkness on a daily basis.

Soldiers would be tasked with defeating and rounding up prisoners of war, many of which would be chosen as sacrificial victims for him.

6. Tlaloc – ‘He Who Makes Things Sprout’

The enigmatic god of rain, Tlaloc was represented wearing a mask with large round eyes and long fangs. He bore a striking familiarity to Chac, the Maya rain god. Tlaloc was seen both as a benevolent deity, providing life-giving rain to crops, but also as an unforgiving and destructive being who sent storms and drought.

He was associated with any rain-related meteorological events, such as storms, floods, lightning, ice and snow. He also ruled the other-worldly paradise of Thalocan, which hosted the victims of floods, storms and diseases such as leprosy.

Tlaloc’s main shrine was the second shrine after Huitzilopochtli’s, on top of the Templo Mayor, the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan.

7. Chalchiuhtlicue – ‘She Who Wears a Green Skirt’

The wife (or sometimes sister) of Tlaloc, Chalchiuhtlicue was the Aztec goddess of running water and all aquatic elements. Like other water deities, Chalchiuhtlicue was often associated with serpents. She was mostly depicted wearing a green or blue skirt from which flows a stream of water.

Chalchiuhtlicue in ‘Codex Borgia’, page 65. Chalchiuhtlicue pictured at right

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Chalchiuhtlicue was also the patroness of childbirth and a protector of newborn babies. In Aztec mythology, she played a key role in the Mexica version of the deluge myth. However, despite bringing forth a cataclysmic flood, she transformed humans into fish – thereby saving them.

The festival of Chalchiuhtlicue usually involved rituals such as fasting, feasting, bloodletting and brutal human sacrifice – sometimes even including that of women and children.

8. Xipe Totec – ‘Our Lord the Flayed One’

The Aztec god of agricultural fertility, Xipe Totec was usually represented wearing a flayed human skin symbolising the death of the old and the growth of new vegetation. The gruesome-sounding Nahuatl moniker originated from the legend where the Aztec god flayed his own skin to feed humanity.

Xipe Totec was usually venerated with human sacrifice, carried out during the March festival of Tlacaxipehualiztli – which literally translates as “flaying of men”. A prisoner would be tied to a stone and given a macuahuitl – a wooden club with obsidian blades – made of feathers instead of knives – and made to ‘fight’ an Aztec warrior.

His skin would then be ritually flayed and worn by reenactors of Xipe Totec who were then worshipped and treated as gods. These reenactors would then be killed and have their hearts cut out, their skins worn by Aztec priests for 20 days and then shed to represent the rebirth aspect of Xipe Totec.

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Leonardo da Vinci: 10 Facts You Might Not Know https://www.historyhit.com/facts-you-might-not-know-about-leonardo-da-vinci/ Tue, 13 Jun 2023 09:47:43 +0000 http://histohit.local/facts-you-might-not-know-about-leonardo-da-vinci/ Continued]]> Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a painter, sculptor, architect, writer, anatomist, geologist, astronomer, botanist, inventor, engineer and scientist – the epitome of a Renaissance man.

Widely considered to be one of the greatest artists of all time, his most famous works included ‘the Mona Lisa’, ‘the Last Supper’ and ‘the Vitruvian Man’.

Although he has since been celebrated for his technological ingenuity, Leonardo’s scientific genius largely went undiscovered and unappreciated during his time. As Sigmund Freud wrote:

He was like a man who awoke too early in the darkness, while the others were all still asleep.

Here are 10 surprising facts you (probably) didn’t know about him.

1. His name was not really “Leonardo da Vinci”

Leonardo’s full name at birth was Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci, which means “Leonardo, (son) of ser Piero from Vinci.”

To his contemporaries he was known just as Leonardo or “Il Florentine” – since he lived near Florence.

2. He was an illegitimate child – fortunately

Born in a farmhouse outside the village of Anchiano in Tuscany on 14/15 April 1452, Leonardo was the child of Ser Piero, a wealthy Florentine notary, and an unmarried peasant woman named Caterina.

The possible birthplace and childhood home of Leonardo in Anchiano, Vinci, Italy. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Roland Arhelger, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

The two had 12 other children with other partners – but Leonardo was the only child they had together.

His illegitimacy meant he was not expected to follow his father’s profession and become notary. Instead, he was free to pursue his own interests and go into the creative arts.

3. He received little formal education

Leonardo was largely self-educated and received no formal education beyond basic reading, writing and mathematics.

His artistic talents were evident from an early age. At aged 14 he began an apprenticeship with the noted sculptor and painter Andrea del Verrocchio, of Florence.

In Verrocchio’s workshop, he was exposed to theoretical training and a wide range of technical skills including metalwork, carpentry, drawing, painting and sculpting.

His earliest known work – a pen-and-ink landscape drawing – was sketched in 1473.

4. His first commissions were never completed

In 1478, Leonardo received his first independent commission: to paint an alterpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in Florence’s Palazzo Vecchio.

In 1481, he was commissioned to paint ‘The Adoration of the Magi’ for the monastery San Donato in Florence.

However he was forced to abandon both commissions when he relocated to Milan to work for the Sforza family. Under the patronage of the Sforzas, Leonardo painted ‘The Last Supper’ in the refectory of the Monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie.

Leonardo would spend 17 years in Milan, leaving only after Duke Ludovico Sforza’s fall from power in 1499.

‘The Baptism of Christ’ (1472–1475) by Verrocchio and Leonardo, Uffizi Gallery. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Andrea del Verrocchio, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

5. He was an accomplished musician

Perhaps predictably for an individual who excelled in everything he tried, Leonardo had a gift for music.

According to his own writings, he believed music to be closely related to the visual arts as it was similarly dependent upon one of the 5 senses.

According to Georgio Vasari, a contemporary of Leonardo’s, “he sang divinely without any preparation.”

He also played the lyre and the flute, often performing at gatherings of the nobility and at the houses of his patrons.

His surviving manuscripts contain some of his original musical compositions, and he invented an organ-viola-harpsichord instrument that only came into being in 2013.

6. His biggest project was destroyed

Leonardo’s most substantial commissioned work was for the Duke of Milan, Ludovico il Moro, called Gran Cavallo or ‘Leonardo’s Horse’ in 1482.

The proposed statue of the Duke’s father Francesco Sforza on horseback was to be more than 25 feet tall and intended to be the largest equestrian statue in the world.

Leonardo spent nearly 17 years planning the statue. But before it was completed, French forces invaded Milan in 1499.

The clay sculpture was used for target practice by the victorious French soldiers, shattering it to pieces.

7. He was a chronic procrastinator

Leonardo was not a prolific painter. Because of his abundance of diverse interests, he would often fail to complete his paintings and projects.

Instead, he would spend his time immersed in nature, conducting scientific experiments, dissecting human and animal bodies, and filling his notebooks with inventions, observations and theories.

Study for ‘The Battle of Anghiari’ (now lost), c. 1503, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Leonardo da Vinci, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

It is thought that a stroke left Leonardo’s right hand paralysed, cutting short his painting career and leaving works such as ‘the Mona Lisa’ unfinished.

As a result, only 15 paintings have been attributed either in whole or in large part to him.

8. His ideas had little influence during the period

Although he was highly respected as an artist, Leonardo’s scientific ideas and inventions gained little traction among his contemporaries.

He made no effort to get his notes published and it was only centuries later that his notebooks – often referred to as his manuscripts and “codices” – were made available to the public.

Because they were kept secret, many of his discoveries had little influence on scientific advancement in the Renaissance period.

9. He was charged with sodomy

In 1476, Leonardo and three other young men were charged with the crime of sodomy in an incident that involved a well-known male prostitute. It was a serious accusation that could have led to his execution.

The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence but in the aftermath Leonardo disappeared, only reemerging in 1478 to take on a commission at a chapel in Florence.

10. He spent his final years in France

When Francis I of France offered him the title of “Premier Painter and Engineer and Architect to the King” in 1515, Leonardo left Italy for good.

It gave him the opportunity to work at leisure while living in a country manor house, Clos Lucé, near the king’s residence in Amboise in the Loire Valley.

Leonardo died in 1519 at the age of 67 and was buried in a nearby palace church.

The church was nearly obliterated during the French Revolution, making it impossible to identify his exact gravesite.

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10 Facts About Machiavelli: Father of Modern Political Science https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-machiavelli-the-prince-father-of-modern-political-science/ Tue, 06 Jun 2023 11:06:14 +0000 http://histohit.local/facts-about-machiavelli-the-prince-father-of-modern-political-science/ Continued]]> Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (1469-1527) was arguably the most influential political thinker of the Renaissance period.

His best-known work, Il Principle (‘The Prince’), later led to his name becoming synonymous with ruthless political machinations.

To this day, the term “Machiavellian” connotes political deceit, scheming and unscrupulousness.

Here are 10 facts about him.

1. He lived during a time of political turmoil

Machiavelli was born on 3 May 1469 in Florence before becoming a senior official in the Florentine Republic.

From 1487 he began working under a banker, until in 1498 he was named the chancellor and the chief executive officer of the government of Florence.

As chancellor, he had responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs during an era of tumultuous political tragedy.

French troops under Charles VIII entering Florence

French troops under Charles VIII entering Florence by Francesco Granacci (Credit: Public domain).

In 1494, Italy was invaded by King Charles VIII of France and then later by Spain and Austria, resulting in nearly 400 years of rule by outsiders.

Machiavelli’s thinking was defined by this upheaval. It was his dream that the divided Italian city-states would unite under a strong leader to meet its threats on equal terms.

2. He worked with Leonardo da Vinci

As a senior government official, Machiavelli used his powers to commission Leonardo da Vinci and appointed him Florence’s military engineer in 1502.

Leonardo left his post only 8 months after, however it is believed that the two “seem to have become intimate” when they were both in Florence.

A painting of Leonardo da Vinci by Francesco Melzi

Image Credit: Royal Collection / CC

Some historians believe their relationship had a significant influence on Machiavelli’s political thinking. His writings appear to be rife with idiosyncratic expressions from Leonardo’s notebooks.

3. He was an enemy of the powerful Medici family

The Medici family – who were the de facto rulers of Florence – played a central role to Machiavelli’s life and works.

When the Medicis were ousted from the city in 1494, Machiavelli’s primary concern was their potential return.

To keep them at bay, he oversaw the recruitment and training of an official Florentine militia. However his army was no match for the Medicis, who were supported by Rome’s papal forces.

Lorenzo the Magnificent

Machiavelli dedicated ‘The Prince’ to Lorenzo de’ Medici, depicted here by Giorgio Vasari (Credit: Uffizi Gallery).

When the House of Medici retook Florence in 1512, Machiavelli was deprived of office and imprisoned under conspiracy charges.

While in jail, he was subjected to torture by the strappado – where a prisoner would be hung by his wrists behind his back, and then suddenly dropped towards the floor, dislocating the shoulders and tearing the muscles.

4. He wrote ‘The Prince’ to regain his lost status

After losing his job as a diplomat, Machiavelli strove to win the favour of the Medicis.

He retired to his estate and turned to scholarship, devoting his time to studying the ancient Roman philosophers. By the end of 1513, he had completed the first version of the political treatise that he would become known for.

Initially, Machiavelli dedicated ‘The Prince’ to Giuliano de’ Medici, but Giuliano died in 1516. The book was subsequently dedicated to the younger Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici, grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent.

Machiavelli did not live to see if he succeeded; ‘The Prince’ was published in 1532, 5 years after his death at the age of 58.

Niccolò Machiavelli

Engraved portrait of Machiavelli, from the Peace Palace Library’s Il Principe (Credit: Public domain).

5. ‘The Prince’ is based on Cesare Borgia

The name Borgia is synonymous with decadence, treachery and ruthlessness – most exemplified by the daring and bloodthirsty Cesare Borgia (1475-1507).

The illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI, Borgia worked to carve out what he hoped would be a kingdom for himself that would rival Venice and Naples.

Cesare Borgia

Cesare Borgia, as depicted in ‘Portrait of Gentleman’ by Altobello Melone (Credit: Accademia Carrara).

His ambitions and actions attracted the notice of Machiavelli, who spent time as an emissary in Borgia’s court, and who would write long reports about him.

Many historians consider Borgia to be the inspiration for ‘The Prince’. Machiavelli admired Borgia’s daring, treachery and effectiveness in contrast to the frustratingly slow and prudent Florentine republic.

6. Machiavelli was not amoral himself

Statue of Niccolò Macchiavelli

Statue of Niccolò Macchiavelli by Lorenzo Bartolini (Credit: Jerbulon / CC).

‘The Prince’ may have gained notoriety for its ruthlessness, but Machiavelli believed in a just government. As a civil servant, he had been one of the republic’s staunchest defenders.

Although his treatise openly encouraged politicians to cheat, bribe, threaten and even kill if necessary, he acknowledged that without respect for justice, society would collapse into chaos.

7. ‘The Prince’ was only one of his works

Cover page of 1550 edition of Machiavelli’s Il Principe.

Image Credit: BNCF

Besides ‘The Prince’, Machiavelli also wrote treatises on ‘The Discourses on Livy’, ‘The Art of War’ and ‘Florentine Histories’.

Apart from being a novelist, he was also a translator, poet, playwright and wrote comedies and carnival songs.

His poems included ‘Decennale Primo’ and ‘Decennale Secondo’ and he penned the satirical play La Mandragola (‘The Mandrake’).

8. It was banned by the Pope

Although copies of ‘The Prince’ had been circulated among Machiavelli’s friends, it was not published until after his death, with the permission of Pope Clement VII.

The papacy’s attitude towards his work soon chilled and it was condemned by both the Catholic and Protestant churches.

In 1557, when Pope Paul IV established Rome’s first Index Librorum Prohibitorum (‘Index of Forbidden Books’), he made sure to include ‘The Prince’ for its encouragement of political and moral corruption.

9. He became a theatrical stock character of evil

By the 16th century, Machiavelli’s name had found itself in the English language as an epithet for crookedness.

In Elizabethan theatre, it came to denote a dramatic type: the incorrigible schemer driven by greed and unbridled ambition.

In Christopher Marlowe’s 1589 play ‘The Jew of Malta’, the character of Machiavel says:

I count religion but a childish toy, / And hold there is no sin but ignorance.

In Shakespeare’s 1602 play ‘The Merry Wives of Windsor’, a characters asks:

Am I politic? Am I subtle? Am I a Machiavel?

10. He is considered the father of modern political science

Machiavelli’s ideas had a profound impact on politics throughout the Western world. After 500 years, his legacy continues in political life across the world.

‘The Prince’ was accused of having inspired Henry VIII’s defiance of the papacy. A copy was in the possession of the Spanish king and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

It was later blamed for having incited Queen Catherine de’ Medici to order the massacre of 2,000 rebel Protestants at the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre.

Machiavelli tomb

Machiavelli’s tomb in the Santa Croce Church in Florence (Credit: Gryffindor / CC).

He was also said to have directly influenced the founding fathers of the American Revolution.

Machiavelli was the first political writer to separate politics from morality, placing great emphasis on practical strategies over philosophical ideas.

Instead of focusing on what was right or wrong, he considered what needs to be achieved.

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10 Facts About Cleopatra https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-cleopatra/ Tue, 30 May 2023 07:16:42 +0000 http://histohit.local/facts-about-cleopatra/ Continued]]> Cleopatra was much more than the femme fatale or tragic heroine history often portrays her as: she was a fearsome leader and brilliantly astute politician. During her rule between 51–30 BC, she brought peace and prosperity to a country that had been bankrupt and split by civil war.

Here are 10 facts about Cleopatra, the legendary Queen of the Nile.

1. She was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty

Although she was born in Egypt, Cleopatra was not Egyptian. Her origins trace back to the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Macedonian Greek royal family.

She was a descendant of Ptolemy I ‘Soter’, a general and friend of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemies were the last dynasty to rule Egypt, from 305 to 30 BC.

After her father Ptolemy XII’s death in 51 BC, Cleopatra became co-regent of Egypt alongside her brother Ptolemy XIII.

Bust of Cleopatra VII – Altes Museum – Berlin

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro

2. She was highly intelligent and well educated

Medieval Arab texts praise Cleopatra for her accomplishments as a mathematician, chemist and philosopher. She was said to have written scientific books and, in the words of the historian Al-Masudi:

She was a sage, a philosopher, who elevated the ranks of scholars and enjoyed their company.

She was also multilingual – historical accounts report her speaking between 5 and 9 languages, including her native Greek, Egyptian, Arabic and Hebrew.

3. Cleopatra married two of her brothers

Cleopatra was married to her brother and co-ruler Ptolemy XIII, who was 10 years old at the time (she was 18). In 48 BC, Ptolemy tried to depose his sister, forcing her to flee to Syria and Egypt.

Upon Ptolemy XIII’s death after being defeated by her Roman-Egyptian armies, Cleopatra married his younger brother Ptolemy XIV. She was 22; he was 12. During their marriage Cleopatra continued to live with Caesar privately and act as his mistress.

She married Mark Antony in 32 BC. Following Antony’s surrender and suicide after being defeated by Octavian, Cleopatra was captured by his army.

The legend goes that Cleopatra had an asp smuggled into her room and allowed it to bite her, poisoning and killing her.

4. Her beauty was the product of Roman propaganda

Contrary to modern portrayals from Elizabeth Taylor and Vivien Leigh, there is no evidence among ancient historians that Cleopatra was a great beauty.

Contemporary visual sources show Cleopatra with a large pointed nose, narrow lips and sharp, jutting chin.

According to Plutarch:

Her actual beauty…was not so remarkable that none could be compared with her.

Her reputation as a dangerous and seductive temptress was in fact the creation of her enemy Octavian. Roman historians portrayed her as a harlot who used sex to bewitch powerful men into giving her power.

5. She used her image as a political tool

Cleopatra believed herself to be a living goddess and was keenly aware of the relationship between image and power. Historian John Fletcher described her as “a mistress of disguise and costume.”

She would appear dressed as the goddess Isis at ceremonial events, and surrounded herself with luxury.

6. She was a popular pharaoh

Contemporary Egyptian sources suggest that Cleopatra was loved among her people.

Unlike her Ptolemaic forebears – who spoke Greek and observed Greek customs – Cleopatra identified as a truly Egyptian pharaoh.

She learned the Egyptian language and commissioned portraits of herself in the traditional Egyptian style.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

7. She was a strong and successful leader

Under her rule, Egypt was the richest nation in the Mediterranean and the last to remain independent from the rapidly expanding Roman Empire.

Cleopatra built up the Egyptian economy, and used trade with Arab nations to bolster her country’s status as a world power.

8. Her lovers were also her political allies

Cleopatra’s relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony were as much military alliances as romantic liaisons.

At the time of her meeting with Caesar, Cleopatra was in exile – cast out by her brother. Caesar was to arbitrate a peace conference between the warring siblings.

Cleopatra persuaded her servant to wrap her in a carpet and present her to the Roman general. In her best finery, she begged Caesar for his help to regain the throne.

By all accounts she and Mark Antony were truly in love. But by allying herself with Octavian’s rival, she helped defend Egypt from becoming a vassal of Rome.

9. She was in Rome when Caesar was killed

Cleopatra was living in Rome as Caesar’s mistress at the time of his violent death in 44 BC. His assassination put her own life in danger, and she fled with their young son across the river Tiber.

A Roman painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid

Image Credit: Ancient Roman painter(s) from Pompeii, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Upon her return to Egypt, Cleopatra immediately took steps to consolidate her rule. She had her brother Ptolemy XIV poisoned with aconite and replaced him with her son, Ptolemy XV ‘Caesarion’.

10. She had four children

Cleopatra had one son with Julius Caesar, who she named Caesarion – ‘little Caesar’. After her suicide, Caesarion was killed under orders by the Roman emperor Augustus.

Cleopatra had three children with Mark Antony: Ptolemy ‘Philadelphus’ and twins Cleopatra ‘Selene’ and Alexander ‘Helios’.

None of her descendants lived to inherit Egypt.

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5 Great Female Rulers of Ancient Egypt https://www.historyhit.com/women-who-ruled-ancient-egypt/ Wed, 10 May 2023 16:54:29 +0000 http://histohit.local/women-who-ruled-ancient-egypt/ Continued]]> The ancient Egyptian empire saw more women in positions of power than any other culture in the ancient world. Some of the most powerful and important deities in the Egyptian pantheon were female, and the ancient Egyptians believed in the wisdom of female rulers.

Here are 5 important female rulers throughout the history of ancient Egypt.

1. Merneith (c. 3200-2900 BC)

Historical records show that Merneith was a queen consort and regent – the wife of Djet and mother of Den, the pharaoh. However it is believed that she may have also been a ruler in her own right.

Her tomb bears a striking resemblance to those of Egyptian pharaohs from the First Dynasty and contains artefacts usually reserved for kings – a large underground chamber, graves for servants, and sacrificial offerings.

Her name was also included in a list of early pharaohs on a seal in Den’s tomb, which has led historians to believe that she was a pharaoh. If true, then Merneith would be the first female pharaoh and queen regnant in recorded history.

 

2. Sobekneferu (r. 1806–1802 BC)

Sobekneferu was the first female pharaoh of ancient Egypt confirmed by evidence. She was the last ruler of the 12th Dynasty, following the death of her brother Amenemhat IV. She was the first monarch named after the crocodile god Sobek, symbol of pharaonic might.

Archaeologists have found images that refer to her as Female Horus, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, and Daughter of Re.

Sobekneferu ruled only briefly – three years and 10 months – and at a time of civil unrest and then a period of anarchy. During her reign, she built temples at the northern sites Tell Dab’a and Herakleopolis, and also completed her father’s pyramid complex at Hawara.

She is said to have created her own pyramid at Mazghuna near Dahshur, but no trace of her burial has been found. Sobekneferu’s innovations inspired the next female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, who went on to adopt the same kingly regalia and false beard.

3. Hatshepsut (r. 1578-1478 BC)

Statue of Hatshepsut. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

The second historically confirmed female pharaoh, Hatshepsut became queen of Egypt at the age of 12 upon marrying her half-brother Thutmose II. She then became regent to her infant stepson Thutmose III, following the death of her husband. Less than 7 years into her regency, Hatshepsut assumed the full powers and title of a pharaoh.

To consolidate her power, Hatshepsut ordered all official representations of her to include all the traditional regalia and symbols of the pharaoh – the Khat head cloth topped with the uraeus, the false beard and shendyt kilt.

Hatshepsut – whose name means “foremost of noblewomen” – has generally been regarded as one of the most successful pharaohs in Egyptian history. During her reign, she established ambitious building projects, including the construction of a great temple at Deir el-Bahari at Luxor. She also oversaw the significant expansion of trade, launching a sea voyage to the northeast coast of Africa.

 

4. Nefertiti (1370-1330 BC)

Alongside her husband Akhenaten IV, Nefertiti ruled Egypt from 1353 to 1336 BC. The power couple of the ancient world are best remembered for starting a monotheistic religious revolution. Prior to their reign, Egyptian religion was polytheistic. Nefertiti and Akhenaten pushed for the worship of only one god – the sun disk called Aten.

Under their joint rule, ancient Egypt became more prosperous than it had ever been. Nefertiti ruled Egypt after the death of her husband, however she vanished from historical records within a few years of assuming the throne.

Some scholars believe she ruled Egypt briefly as pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten, before the ascension of Tutankhamun.

5. Cleopatra VII (r. 51-12 BC)

Marble bust of Cleopatra VII of Egypt from ca. 40-30 BC. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Louis le Grand, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The daughter of Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra was the last active pharaoh in Ptolemaic Egypt, ruling as co-regent first with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and then Ptolemy XIV. Cleopatra was forced to flee when Ptolemy XIII ousted her from power. Determined to regain the throne, she raised an army of mercenaries and sought the backing of Roman leader Julius Caesar.

With Rome’s military might, she defeated her brother’s forces, gained control of Egypt, and bore Julius Caesar a son. After his death, she became involved with his successor, Marc Anthony. Of Macedonian origin, Cleopatra was fluent in a multitude of languages including Aramaic, Egyptian, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew and Latin.

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10 of the Most Important People in the Renaissance https://www.historyhit.com/most-important-renaissance-figures/ Tue, 21 Mar 2023 07:15:48 +0000 http://histohit.local/most-important-renaissance-figures/ Continued]]> The Renaissance began as a cultural movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. The Renaissance gave birth to some of the most famous names that we know today. Here are our 10 of the most famous people during the Renaissance:

1. Lorenzo de’ Medici

Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449-1492) was a member of the Medici family, one of the wealthiest European families in history and the de facto rulers of Florence. During the Renaissance, artists were completely reliant on patrons. Although he rarely commissioned work himself, Lorenzo de’ Medici helped connect artists with other patrons.

Artists who enjoyed Lorenzo’s patronage included Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo Buonarroti. Along with being a statesman and major patron of the arts, he also encouraged the development of Renaissance humanism through his inner circle of scholars and philosophers.

2. Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was the very ideal of the Renaissance man – a supremely gifted painter, scientist, inventor and polymath. Da Vinci has been widely regarded as one of the world’s greatest minds, with extraordinary talents that included painting, mathematics, architecture, engineering, botany, sculpture, and human biology.

As an artist, he painted ‘The Last Supper’, ‘The Vitruvian Man’ and the ‘Mona Lisa’, arguably the world’s most famous painting. As an inventor, he designed workable precursors of a diving suit, a robot, and a tank – centuries before they became a reality. As a scientist, he designed the first self-propelled machine in history and described the processes governing friction.

‘Saint John the Baptist’ by Leonardo da Vinci

Image Credit: Leonardo da Vinci, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

3. Michelangelo

Michelangelo (1475–1564) was a sculptor, painter, architect, poet and engineer whose endeavours embodied the spirit of the Renaissance. His greatest works include St Peter’s Basilica – the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture – his frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and the statue of David.

Michelangelo’s artistic legacy is one that lives on as one of the three titans of the Florentine renaissance, alongside da Vinci and Raphael. His works have since exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of art.

4. Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, economist, diplomat and classics scholar. His most important teaching – that the earth revolved around the sun – placed him in direct opposition to the established teachings of the church.

His heliocentric view of the solar system and universe was the most prominent scientific achievement of the Renaissance age. Without him, much of Galileo’s work would not have been possible.

Copernicus’ publication in 1543 of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (‘On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’) led to the Copernican Revolution, seen as the starting point of modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.

Nicolaus Copernicus portrait from Town Hall in Toruń, 1580

Image Credit: Toruń Regional Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

5. Petrarch

Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), commonly known as Petrarch, was one of the earliest humanists during the early Italian Renaissance and has been called the ‘father of humanism’. A devout Catholic, Petrarch believed that God had given humans their intellectual and creative potential to be used to their fullest.

He argued that classical writings offered moral guidance to reform humanity – a key principle of Renaissance humanism. Petrarch’s rediscovery of Cicero’s letters in 1345 is often credited with initiating the 14th century Renaissance. In the 16th century, Italian scholar Pietro Bembo created the model for the modern Italian language based on Petrarch’s works.

6. Raphael

Up until the late 19th century, Raphael (1483-1520) was considered to be the greatest artist who ever lived – more so than even da Vinci and Michelangelo.

Known for his mastery of depicting human emotions and clarity of form, Raphael produced works that were the cornerstones of Renaissance art.

His best known work is The School of Athens in the Stanza della segnatura (‘Room of the Signatura’) – also known as the Raphael Rooms – in the Vatican palace.

Painted between 1509 and 1511, the Raphael Rooms depicted the harmony and wisdom which Renaissance humanists perceived between Christian teaching and Greek philosophy.

7. Galileo Galilei

Galileo (1564–1642) was perhaps the most influential Renaissance scientist who paved the scientific revolution that later flourished in northern Europe. Often called the ‘father of observational astronomy’, Galilei pioneered the telescope and advocated the heliocentric model of our solar system.

He made key discoveries in both pure fundamental science as well as practical applied science, and in doing so revolutionised our understanding of the world.

8. Michel de Montaigne

Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) was one of the most influential humanists of the French Renaissance. His 1850 Essais (‘Essays’) established the essay as a literary genre.

First published in 1580, the book balances personal storytelling and intellectual knowledge in Montaigne’s signature essay format. His work inspired writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, René Descartes, and Francis Bacon.

Montaigne’s profound writings covered a remarkably modern and diverse range topics including human action, child education and motivation.

9. Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a Florentine political philosopher and statesman, whose work Il Principe (‘The Prince’) has earned him an image as an immoral cynic.

In his best-known book, Machiavelli outlined traits that would bolster power and influence in an effective leader. A new prince had to be shrewd, brutal, calculating and – when necessary – utterly immoral. In other words, “the ends justify the means.”

Machiavelli has often been called the father of modern political philosophy and political science. His ideas had a profound impact on political leaders throughout Europe, aided by the new technology of the printing press.

His writings were said to have influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and is notable in political theorists including John Milton, Francis Bacon, Rousseau, Hume, Adam Smith and Descartes.

Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli

Image Credit: Santi di Tito, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

10. William Shakespeare

While the Italian Renaissance was dominated by the visual arts, the Renaissance in England took place mainly in literature and music. Shakespeare (1564-1616) was a key figure of the English Renaissance.

While he was working in the theatre, the Renaissance was peaking in England. Shakespeare was one of the first playwrights to introduce the new openness and humanism of the movement to the theatre.

One of the most influential writers in the English language, Shakespeare wrote some of the finest and most famous works ever written.

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The Real Dracula: 10 Facts About Vlad the Impaler https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-vlad-the-impaler/ Tue, 07 Mar 2023 08:48:27 +0000 http://histohit.local/facts-about-vlad-the-impaler/ Continued]]> Vlad III Dracula (1431-1467/77) was one of the most important rulers in Wallachian history.

He was also known as Vlad the Impaler for the brutality with which he dispensed with his enemies, gaining him notoriety in 15th century Europe.

Here are 10 facts about the man who inspired fear and legends for centuries to come.

1. His family name means “dragon”

The name Dracul was given to Vlad’s father Vlad II by his fellow knights who belonged to a Christian crusading order known as the Order of the Dragon. Dracul translates to “dragon” in Romanian.

In 1431, King Sigismund of Hungary – who would later become the Holy Roman Emperor – inducted the elder Vlad into the knightly order.

Emperor Sigismund I. Son of Charles IV of Luxembourg

Image Credit: Formerly attributed to Pisanello, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Order of the Dragon was devoted to one task: the defeat of the Ottoman Empire.

His son, Vlad III, would become known as the “son of Dracul” or, in old Romanian, Drăculea, hence Dracula. In modern Romanian, the word drac refers to the devil.

2. He was born in Wallachia, present-day Romania

Vlad III was born in 1431 in the state of Wallachia, now the southern portion of present-day Romania. It was one of the three principalities that made up Romania at the time, along with Transylvania and Moldova.

Situated between Christian Europe and the Muslim lands of the Ottoman Empire, Wallachia was the scene of a great number of bloody battles.

As Ottoman forces pushed westward, Christian Crusaders marched eastward toward the Holy Land, Wallachia became the site of constant turmoil.

3. He was held hostage for 5 years

In 1442, Vlad accompanied his father and his 7-year-old brother Radu on a diplomatic mission in the heart of the Ottoman Empire.

However the three were captured and held hostage by the Ottoman diplomats. Their captors told Vlad II that he could be released – on condition that the two sons remain.

Believing that it was the safest option for his family, Vlad II agreed. The boys were held in a citadel atop a rocky precipice over the town of Eğrigöz, now Doğrugöz in present-day Turkey.

A woodcut depicting Vlad on the title page of a German pamphlet about him, published in Nuremberg in 1488 (left); ‘Pilate Judging Jesus Christ’, 1463, National Gallery, Ljubljana (right)

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

During the 5 years of captivity in the fortress, Vlad and his brother were taught lessons in the art of war, science and philosophy.

However some accounts state that he was also subjected to torture and beatings, and it was thought that it was during this time that he developed his hated of the Ottomans.

4. His father and brother were both killed

Upon his return, Vlad II was overthrown in a coup orchestrated by local war lords known as the boyar.

He was killed in the marshes behind his house while his oldest son, Mircea II, was tortured, blinded and buried alive.

5. He invited his rivals to dinner – and killed them

Vlad III was freed shortly after his family’s death, however by then he had already developed a taste for violence.

To consolidate power and assert his dominance, he decided to hold a banquet and invited hundreds of members of his rival families.

Knowing his authority would be challenged, he had his guests stabbed and their still-twitching bodies impaled on spikes.

6. He was named for his preferred form of torture

By 1462, he had succeeded to the Wallachian throne and was at war with the Ottomans. With enemy forces three times the size of his own, Vlad ordered his men to poison wells and burn crops. He also paid diseased men to infiltrate and infect the enemy.

His victims were often disembowelled, beheaded and skinned or boiled alive. However impalement came to be his killing method of choice, largely because it was also a form of torture.

Impaling involved a wooden or metal pole inserted through the genitals to the victim’s mouth, shoulders or neck. It would often take hours, if not days, for the victim to finally die.

His reputation continued to grow as he inflicted this type of torture on foreign and domestic enemies alike. In one account, he once dined among a “forest” of spikes topped with writhing bodies.

His penchant for impaling his enemies and leaving them to die earned him the name Vlad Țepeș (‘Vlad the Impaler’).

7. He ordered the mass killing of 20,000 Ottomans

In June 1462 as he retreated from a battle, Vlad ordered 20,000 defeated Ottomans to be impaled on wooden stakes outside the city of Târgoviște.

When the Sultan Mehmed II (1432-1481) came across the field of the dead being picked apart by crows, he was so horrified that he retreated to Constantinople.

On another occasion, Vlad met with a group of Ottoman envoys who declined to remove their turbans, citing religious custom. As the Italian humanist Antonio Bonfini described:

whereupon he strengthened their custom by nailing their turbans to their heads with three spikes, so that they could not take them off.

8. The location of his death is unknown

Now long after the infamous impalement of Ottoman prisoners of war, Vlad was forced into exile and imprisoned in Hungary.

He returned in 1476 to reclaim his rule of Wallachia, however his triumph was short-lived. While marching to battle with the Ottomans, he and his soldiers were ambushed and killed.

According to Leonardo Botta, the Milanese ambassador to Buda, the Ottomans cut his corpse into pieces and paraded back to Constantinople to the hands of Sultan Medmed II, to be displayed over the city’s guests.

His remains have never been found.

The Battle with Torches, a painting by Theodor Aman about Vlad’s Night Attack at Târgoviște

Image Credit: Theodor Aman, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

9. He remains a national hero of Romania

Vlad the Impaler was an undeniably brutal ruler. However he is still considered one of the most important rulers in Wallachian history and a national hero of Romania.

His victorious campaigns against the Ottoman forces which protected both Wallachia and Europe have won him praise as a military leader.

He was even praised by Pope Pius II (1405-1464), who expressed admiration for his military feats and for defending Christendom.

10. He was the inspiration behind Bram Stoker’s ‘Dracula’

It is believed that Stoker based the title character of his 1897 ‘Dracula’ on Vlad the Impaler. However the two characters have little in common.

Although there is no concrete evidence to support this theory, historians have speculated that Stoker’s conversations with the historian Hermann Bamburger may have helped provide him with information on Vlad’s nature.

Despite Vlad’s infamous bloodthirstiness, Stoker’s novel was the first to make the connection between Dracula and vampirism.

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15 Famous Explorers Who Changed the World https://www.historyhit.com/most-important-explorers-of-the-world/ Fri, 03 Mar 2023 10:15:43 +0000 http://histohit.local/most-important-explorers-of-the-world/ Continued]]> Beginning from the early 15th century until the middle of the 17th century, European explorers took to the seas in search of trade, knowledge, and power.

The story of human exploration is as old as the story of civilisation, and many of the stories of these explorers have become legends over the centuries.

Here are 15 of the most famous explorers during the Age of Exploration, before and after.

1. Marco Polo (1254-1324)

A Venetian merchant and adventurer, Marco Polo travelled along the Silk Road from Europe to Asia between 1271 and 1295.

Originally invited to the court of Kublai Khan (1215-1294) with his father and uncle, he remained in China for 17 years where the Mongol ruler sent him on fact-finding missions to distant parts of the empire.

Polo wearing a Tartar outfit, print from the 18th century

Image Credit: Grevembrock, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Upon his return to Venice, Polo was imprisoned in Genoa alongside the writer Rustichello da Pisa. The result of their encounter was Il milione (“The Million”) or ‘The Travels of Marco Polo’, which described his voyage to and experiences in Asia.

Polo was not the first European to reach China, but his travelogue inspired many explorers – among them, Christopher Columbus.

His writings also had a significant influence on European cartography, ultimately leading to the Age of Discovery a century later.

2. Zheng He (c. 1371-1433)

Known as the Three-Jewel Eunuch Admiral, Zheng He was China’s greatest explorer.

Commanding the world’s mightiest fleet of 300 ships and as many as 30,000 troops, Admiral Zheng made 7 epic voyages to southeast Asia, south Asia, the Middle East and Africa between 1405 and 1433.

Setting sail aboard his “treasure ships”, he would exchange valuable goods such as gold, porcelain and silk for ivory, myrrh and even China’s first giraffe.

Despite being instrumental in extending the influence and power of the Ming dynasty China, Zheng’s legacy went overlooked after China entered a long period of isolation.

3. Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

The Portuguese prince has a legendary status in the early stages of European exploration – despite never having embarked on an exploratory voyage himself.

His patronage of Portuguese exploration led to expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean and along the western coast of Africa, and the colonising of the Azores and Madeira islands.

Although he did not earn the title ‘”the Navigator” until three centuries after his death, Henry was considered the main initiator of the Age of Discovery and the Atlantic slave trade.

4. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

Often called the “discoverer” of the New World, Christopher Columbus embarked on 4 voyages across the Atlantic Ocean between 1492 and 1504.

Under the sponsorship of Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Spain, he had originally set sail hoping to find a westward route to the Far East.

Posthumous portrait of Columbus by Sebastiano del Piombo, 1519. There are no known authentic portraits of Columbus

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Instead, the Italian navigator found himself on an island that later became known as the Bahamas. Believing he had reached the Indies, he dubbed the natives there “Indians”.

Columbus’ voyages were the first European expeditions to the Caribbean, Central America and South America, and opened the way for the European exploration and permanent colonisation of the Americas.

5. Vasco da Gama (c. 1460-1524)

In 1497, the Portuguese explorer set sail from Lisbon towards India. His voyage made him the first European to reach India by sea, and opened up the first sea route connecting Europe to Asia.

Da Gama’s discovery of the Cape Route opened the way for an age of Portuguese exploration and colonialism in Asia.

It would take another century for other European powers to challenge Portugal’s naval supremacy and commercial monopoly of commodities such as pepper and cinnamon.

The Portuguese national epic poem, Os Lusiadas (“The Lusiads”), was written in his honour by Luís Vaz de Camões (c. 1524-1580), Portugal’s greatest ever poet.

6. John Cabot (c. 1450-1498)

Born Giovanni Caboto, the Venetian explorer became known for his 1497 voyage to North America under the commission of Henry VII of England.

Upon landing in what he called “New-found-land” in present-day Canada – which he mistook for being Asia – Cabot claimed land for England.

Cabot’s expedition was the first European exploration of coastal North America since the 11th century, making him the first early modern European to “discover” North America.

It is not known if he died in a storm during his final voyage in 1498, or if he returned safely to London and died shortly after.

7. Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467-1520)

Regarded as the “discoverer” of Brazil, the Portuguese navigator was the first European to reach the Brazilian coast, in 1500.

While on a voyage to India Cabral accidentally sailed too far south west, and found himself at present-day Porto Seguro on the coast of Bahia.

After staying mere days, Cabral sailed back across the Atlantic, leaving two degredados, exiled criminals, who would father the first of Brazil’s mestizo population. Several years after, the Portuguese began colonising the area.

The name “Brazil” originated from the brazilwood tree, which the settlers made great profit from. Today, with over 200 million people, Brazil is the world’s largest Portuguese-speaking nation.

8. Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512)

Around 1501-1502, the Florentine navigator Amerigo Vespucci embarked on a follow-up expedition to Cabral’s, exploring the Brazilian coast.

‘Allegory of the New World’ by Stradanus, depicting Vespucci that awakens the sleeping America (cropped)

Image Credit: Stradanus, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

As a result of this voyage, Vespucci demonstrated that Brazil and the West Indies were not the eastern outskirts of Asia – as Columbus had thought – but a separate continent, which became described as the “New World”.

The German geographer Martin Waldseemüller was so impressed that he coined the name “America”, after the Latin version of Vespucci’s first name, in a 1507 map.

Waldseemüller later changed his mind and removed the name in 1513, believing that it was Columbus who discovered the New World. However it was too late, and the name stuck.

9. Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

The Portuguese explorer was the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean, and organised the Spanish expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522.

Despite rough weather, and a mutinous and starving crew riddled with scurvy, Magellan and his ships managed to reach an island – probably Guam – in the western Pacific.

In 1521, Magellan was killed after reaching the Philippines, when he was caught in a battle between two rival chieftains.

The expedition, begun by Magellan but completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano, resulted in the first circumnavigation of the earth.

10. Juan Sebastián Elcano (c. 1476-1526)

Following Magellan’s death, the Basque explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano took command of the expedition.

His ship ‘the Victoria’ reached Spanish shores in September 1522, completing the navigation. Of the 270 men who left with the Mangellan-Elcano expedition, only 18 Europeans returned alive.

Magellan has historically received more credit than Elcano for commanding the world’s first circumnavigation.

This was in part because Portugal wanted to recognise a Portuguese explorer, and because of Spanish fears of Basque nationalism.

11. Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)

A Spanish conquistador (soldier and explorer), Hernán Cortés was best known for leading an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in 1521 and for winning Mexico for the Spanish crown.

Upon landing in the southeastern Mexican coast in 1519, Cortés did what no explorer had done – he disciplined his army and trained them to act as a cohesive force.

He then set out for the Mexican interior, heading for the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan where he took hostage its ruler: Montezuma II.

Having captured the capital and subdued neighbouring territories, Cortés became the absolute ruler of a territory extending from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean.

In 1521, a new settlement – Mexico City – was built on Tenochtitlan and became the centre of Spanish America. During his rule, Cortés inflicted great cruelty on the indigenous population.

12. Sir Francis Drake (c.1540-1596)

Drake was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe in a single expedition from 1577 to 1580.

In his youth, he commanded a ship as part of a fleet bringing African slaves to the “New World”, making one of the first English slaving voyages.

Portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, 1591

Image Credit: Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Later, he was secretly commissioned by Elizabeth I to set off an expedition against the colonies of the Spanish empire – the most powerful in the world at the time.

Aboard his flagship ‘the Pelican’ – later renamed ‘the Golden Hind’ – Drake made his way into the Pacific, up the coast of South America, across the Indian Ocean and back into the Atlantic.

After two years of plundering, pirating and adventuring, he sailed his ship into Plymouth Harbour on 26 September 1580. He was knighted by the Queen personally aboard his ship 7 months later.

13. Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618)

A key figure of the Elizabethan era, Sir Walter Raleigh carried out several expeditions to the Americas between 1578 and 1618.

He was instrumental in the English colonisation of North America, having been granted a royal charter that allowed him to organise the first English colonies in Virginia.

Although these colonial experiments were a disaster, resulting in the so-called “Lost Colony” of Roanoke Island, it paved the way for future English settlements.

A former favourite of Elizabeth I, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London after she discovered his secret marriage to Elizabeth Throckmorton, her maid of honour.

Upon his release, Raleigh set off on two unsuccessful expeditions in search of the legendary “El Dorado“, or “City of Gold”. He was executed on his return to England for treason by James I.

14. James Cook (1728-1779)

A British Royal Navy captain, James Cook embarked on ground-breaking expeditions that helped map the Pacific, New Zealand and Australia.

In 1770, he made the first European contact with the eastern coast of Australia, and chartered several islands in the Pacific.

Using a combination of seamanship, navigation and cartographic skills, Cook radically expanded and changed European perceptions of world geography.

15. Roald Amundsen (1872-1928)

The Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen was the first to reach the South Pole, during an Antarctic expedition of 1910-1912.

He was also the first to sail through the Arctic’s treacherous Northwest Passage, from 1903 to 1906.

Amundsen c. 1923

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Amundsen had planned to be the first man to the North Pole. On hearing that the American Robert Peary had achieved the feat, Amundsen decided to change course and instead set sail for Antarctica.

On 14 December 1911 and with the help of sleigh dogs, Amundsen reached the South Pole, beating his British rival Robert Falcon Scott.

In 1926, he led the first flight over the North Pole in a dirigible. He died two years later trying to rescue a fellow explorer who had crashed at sea near Spitsbergen, Norway.

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Who Were the Medicis? The Family That Ruled Florence https://www.historyhit.com/who-were-the-medicis-the-family-that-ruled-florence/ Mon, 30 Jan 2023 17:51:56 +0000 http://histohit.local/who-were-the-medicis-the-family-that-ruled-florence/ Continued]]> The Medici family, also known as the House of Medici, was a banking and political dynasty during the Renaissance period.

By the first half of the 15th century, the family had risen to become the most important house in Florence and Tuscany – a position they would hold for three centuries.

The founding of the Medici dynasty

The Medici family originated in the agricultural Mugello region of Tuscany. The name Medici means “doctors”.

The dynasty began when Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici (1360–1429) emigrated to Florence to found the Medici Bank in 1397, which would become Europe’s largest and most respected bank.

Using his success in banking, he turned to new lines of commerce – trading spices, silk and fruit. At his death, the Medicis were one of wealthiest families in Europe.

Portrait of Cosimo de’ Medici the Elder. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Peter Paul Rubens, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

As the pope’s bankers, the family quickly acquired political power. In 1434, Giovanni’s son Cosimo de’ Medici (1389-1464) became the first Medici to de facto rule Florence.

The three branches of the Medici family

There were three branches of Medicis that successfully gained power – the line of Chiarissimo II, the line of Cosimo (known as Cosimo the Elder) and the descendants of his brother, who went on to rule as grand dukes.

The House of Medici produced 4 popes – Leo X (1513–1521), Clement VII (1523–1534), Pius IV (1559–1565) and Leo XI (1605).

They also produced two French queens – Catherine de’ Medici (1547–1589) and Marie de’ Medici (1600–1630).

In 1532, the family gained the hereditary title of Duke of Florence. The duchy was later elevated to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which they ruled until the death of Gian Gastone de’ Medici in 1737.

Cosimo the Elder and his descendants

Sculpture of Cosimo the Elder by Luigi Magi. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Uffizi, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

During Cosimo’s reign, the Medicis gained fame and prestige first in Florence and then across Italy and Europe. Florence prospered.

Because they were part of the patrician class and not the nobility, the Medicis were seen as friends of the common people.

After his death, Cosimo’s son Piero (1416-1469) took over. His son, Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492), would subsequently rule during the pinnacle of the Florentine Renaissance.

Under Cosimo’s rule and that of his son and grandson, Renaissance culture and art flourished in Florence.

The city became the cultural centre of Europe and the cradle of the new humanism.

The Pazzi conspiracy

In 1478, the Pazzi and Salviati families attempted a plot to displace the Medicis with the approval of Pope Sixtus IV, who was an enemy of the Florentine family.

The brothers Lorenzo and Giuliano de’ Medici were attacked during High Mass at Florence Cathderal.

Giuliano was stabbed 19 times, and bled to death on the Cathedral floor. Lorenzo managed to escape, seriously but not fatally wounded.

Most of the conspirators were caught, tortured and executed, hung from the windows of the Palazzo della Signoria. The Pazzi family were banished from Florence, their lands and property confiscated.

The failure of the plot served to strengthen the position of Lorenzo and his family’s rule over Florence.

The fall of the House

Portrait of Cosimo I de’ Medici by Cigoli. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The last of the great banking Medici line, Piero il Fatuo (“the Unfortunate”), only ruled Florence for two years before being expelled. The Medici Bank collapsed in 1494.

Upon the defeat of the French armies in Italy by the Spanish, the Medicis returned to rule the city in 1512.

Under Cosimo I (1519-1574) – a descendant of Cosimo the Elder’s brother Lodovici – Tuscany was turned into an absolutist nation state.

These later Medicis became more authoritarian in their rule of the region, which led to its decline as a cultural hub.

After the death of Cosimo II in 1720, the region suffered under ineffectual Medici rule.

In 1737 the last Medici ruler, Gian Gastone, died without a male heir. His death ended the family dynasty after almost three centuries.

Control over the Tuscany was passed to Francis of Lorraine, whose marriage to Maria Theresa of Austria sparked the beginning of the reign of the Hapsburg-Lorraine family.

The Medici legacy

Over a period of just 100 years, the Medici family transformed Florence. As unparalleled patrons of the arts, they supported some of the greatest artists of the Renaissance,

Giovanni di Bicci, the first Medici arts patron, encouraged Masaccio and commissioned Brunelleschi for the reconstruction of the Basilica di San Lorenzo in 1419.

Cosimo the Elder was a dedicated patron to painters and sculptors, commissioning art and buildings by Brunelleschi, Fra Angelico, Donatello and Ghiberti.

Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486). Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Sandro Botticelli, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

A poet and humanist himself, his grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent supported the work of Renaissance artists such as Botticelli, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

Pope Leo X commissioned works from Raphael, while Pope Clement VII hired Michelangelo to painter the alter wall of the Sistine Chapel.

In architecture, the Medici were responsible for the Uffizi Gallery, St Peter’s Basilica, Santa Maria del Fiore, Boboli Gardens, the Belvedere, the Medici Chapel and Palazzo Medici.

With the Medici Bank, the family introduced a number of banking innovations which are still in use today – the idea of a holding company, double-entry bookkeeping and lines of credit.

Finally in science, the Medici are remembered for the patronage of Galileo, who tutored multiple generations of the Medici children – for whom he named the four largest moons of Jupiter.

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10 Facts About Theodora: Byzantine Empress, Courtesan and Feminist https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-theodora-byzantine-empress-courtesan-and-feminist/ Mon, 16 Jan 2023 14:00:02 +0000 http://histohit.local/facts-about-theodora-byzantine-empress-courtesan-and-feminist/ Continued]]> Theodora (497-548) was a Byzantine empress, wife of the emperor Justinian I and the most powerful woman in Byzantine history.

Born from humble origins, Theodora reigned over the Byzantine Empire alongside her husband from 527 until her death in 548. They would rule together in a golden period of Byzantine history.

Highly intelligent and political astute, she would use her influence to promote religious and social policies and significantly expand the rights of women.

Here are 10 facts about the ‘Golden Queen’ of the Byzantine Empire.

1. She led an unconventional early life

Theodora was the daughter of Acacius, a bear-keeper who worked for the Hippodrome of Constantinople. Little is known of her early years.

Her mother, whose name is not recorded, was a dancer and actress. After Acacius’ death, her mother remarried and began Theodora’s acting career.

The four bronze horses that stood atop the Hippodrome boxes, today at St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Along with her two sisters, Comitona and Anastasia, Theodora would become an actress, dancer, mime artist and comedian. By 15, she was the star of the hippodrome.

At the time, much of what was called “acting” would have involved sexual or indecent performances on stage. Theodora would have been – as most actresses were – a child prostitute.

According to the salacious writings of the 6th century Byzantine historian, Procopius of Caesarea, Theodora worked in a brothel serving low-status customers before performing on stage.

Off stage, Theodora was said to have had numerous lovers and held wild parties. On stage, she was said to have gained fame particularly for a lurid portrayal of Leda and the Swan.

2. She abandoned her acting career aged 16

At the age of 16, Theodora walked away from her acting career to become mistress to a Syrian official named Hecebolus, the governor of what is now known as Libya.

She accompanied Hecebolus on his travels to North Africa, and stayed with him for almost 4 years before returning to Constantinople.

Abandoned and maltreated by Hecebolus, she later settled for a while in Alexandria, Egypt, where she made a living as wool spinner.

3. She converted to an early form of Christianity

After her relationship with Hecebolus broke down, Theodora joined an ascetic community in the desert near Alexandria, where she converted to a branch of early Christianity, Monophysitism.

Monophysite Christianity held that Jesus Christ’s nature was purely divine, whereas orthodox Christianity believed that Jesus’ nature was both human and divine.

Emperor Justinian. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Roger Culos, CC BY-SA 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

During her reign with Justinian, she would be known to explicitly work against her husband, who was the leader of the Byzantine church and protector of orthodoxy.

She would protect and house monks who adhered to monophysite beliefs, even using the Great Palace of Constantinople to do so. Justinian was said to have moved significantly in favour of monophysitism towards the end of his life.

Theodora is credited with supporting, and ultimately achieving the adoption, of Monophysitism in Nubia around 540 CE.

4. She and Justinian were an unlikely match

After her conversion, Theodora travelled to Constantinople where she met Justinian, who was 20 years her senior.

A farmer’s son from present-day Serbia, Justinian moved to the capital to work for his uncle Justin, and to help in his rise to power and eventual ascension to the throne.

Justinian was said to have been taken by Theodora’s intelligence and beauty, and made her his mistress before marrying her in 525.

When Emperor Justin I died in 527, Theodora was crowned empress of Rome, in the same coronation ceremony as her husband.

5. Justinian changed the law to marry her

Theodora’s background meant she was not legally allowed to marry Justinian. Roman law from Constantine’s time prevented anyone of senatorial rank from marrying actresses.

In order to legalise their marriage, Justinian had a law changed to raise her status and created another to allow her to marry.

Their marriage was against the express wishes of Justinian’s aunt, the empress Euphemia, who was herself a former slave and prostitute.

The couple were said to have matched each other in intelligence, ambition and energy. Together, they heralded a new era for the Byzantine Empire and its people.

6. She wielded significant influence in political affairs

Justinian treated his wife as his intellectual partner, and in doing so Theodora was able to have a major impact on the political decisions of the Byzantine Empire.

Although she was never made co-regent, many believed that it was she who ruled Byzantium and not her husband.

Theodora’s name appears in almost all the legislation passed during the period, and she received foreign envoys and corresponded with foreign rulers – roles usually taken by the ruler.

7. She was an ardent supporter of women’s rights

Theodora could in many ways be described as an early feminist. She is remembered as one of the first rulers to recognise the rights of women.

As empress, she set up a house where prostitutes could live in peace. She worked for women’s marriage and dowry rights, championed anti-rape legislation, and was supportive of young girls who had been sold into sexual slavery.

Her laws banished brothel-keepers from Constantinople and all other major cities of the empire. She expanded the rights of women in divorce and property ownership, banned forced prostitution, and gave women guardianship rights over their children.

However although she did a great deal to help women and girls in need, Theodora was known to attack women of higher standing who threatened her position, including the empress Euphemia.

8. She oversaw the rebuilding of Constantinople

View on Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. Image credit: AlexAnton / Shutterstock.com

Image Credit: AlexAnton / Shutterstock.com

During her and her husband’s reign, Constantinople was rebuilt and reformed to become the most splendid city the world had seen for centuries.

Aqueducts, bridges and churches were built and rebuilt – the greatest of them was the Hagia Sophia, considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and one of the world’s greatest architectural wonders.

9. Her death dealt a severe blow to Byzantine politics

Theodora died in 548 at the age of 48, possibly or cancer of gangrene. Her death had a visible impact on Justinian, who never remarried.

After a period of deep mourning, Justinian would rule for another 17 years. Theodora’s importance in Byzantine political life can be demonstrated by the fact that little significant legislation dates from the period between her death and that of her husband’s in 548.

Theodora’s daughter (from before her marriage to Justinian) would go on to have three sons, all of who became prominent figures in Byzantine politics.

10. She was overlooked and misunderstood by historians

Despite playing a key role in Byzantine history, Theodora was largely overlooked by historians and scholars.

Most of what we know about her comes from Procopius’ ‘Secret History’, which was written after her death and regarded by many as exaggerated gossip.

In it, “Theodora-from-the-Brothel” is described allowing geese to peck grain from her lower torso, dancing naked but for a ribbon, and has her saying she regrets that God gave her only three orifices for pleasure.

She is described as being vulgar, jealous, filled with insatiable lust as well as possessing cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness and mean-spiritedness.

Procopius went on to describe her husband Justinian as a headless demon, and he clearly saw the couple in a negative light. He also took issue with Antonina, the wife of Justinian’s general Belisarius, who was portrayed as constantly scheming with Theodora.

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