The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the period from 1064 to 1066 when the English throne passed from Edward the Confessor to Harold Godwinson, and then to William the Conqueror following the Norman Conquest.

In addition to depicting the build-up to, and events of, the Battle of Hastings, the tapestry provides rich insight into 11th-century Britain and Anglo-Norman cultural history. It has proven to be an invaluable source of insight and information.

Here are 10 facts about the Bayeux Tapestry. 

1. It’s not a tapestry

Strictly speaking, the Bayeux Tapestry is an embroidery as it was created by sewing thread onto cloth and not woven with a loom.

9 separately produced linen panels were embroidered with wool yarn and then sewn together into one continuous piece. It is 68.38 metres in length and 0.5 metres in height.

2. The Bayeux Tapestry is thought to be incomplete

The Tapestry provides plenty of background to the Norman Conquest. It begins in 1064 with Edward the Confessor and his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson’s private conversations.

And yet it ends abruptly after Harold’s death at the Battle of Hastings without any reference to William’s coronation as King of England. This has led many historians to assert the Bayeux Tapestry may never have been finished or that at least one panel may have been lost.

A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry depicting Bishop Odo rallying Duke William’s troops during the Battle of Hastings in 1066

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

3. It is almost 1000 years old

The precise date of the Bayeux Tapestry’s creation is unknown but historians widely agree on it being produced shortly after the events it depicts: ending with the Norman victory at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066, the artefact was probably created sometime between then and the end of the 11th century.

If, as suspected, the Bayeux Tapestry was created soon after Norman Conquest, that would make it around 950 years old.

4. It was likely commissioned by William the Conqueror’s half-brother

It is not known who commissioned the Tapestry, but a likely candidate is William the Conqueror’s half-brother Bishop Odo of Bayeux, who became Earl of Kent following the successful Norman invasion of England.

As Bayeux Cathedral was built in 1077, it’s plausible to suggest the Tapestry was intended to adorn its walls. Furthermore, historians have highlighted the disproportionately large role Bishop Odo is given on the Bayeux Tapestry.

5. The Bayeux Tapestry might have been produced in England

Despite residing in France for most of its history, the artefact is believed to have been made in England. Canterbury is considered a credible location for a number of reasons. Namely, it had a famous tapestry school producing work in a very similar style to the Bayeux Tapestry.

As for the specific artists behind the tapestry, it is likely that nuns were responsible: their convent lifestyles enabled them to become the most experienced and talented embroiderers of the period.

6. Centuries of the Bayeux Tapestry’s history are unaccounted for

The first reference to the Bayeux Tapestry was in the 1476 Bayeux Cathedral inventory, around 300 years after it was likely produced. The listing noted the cloth was hung annually in the cathedral for the week of the Feast of St John the Baptist.

While the Bayeux Tapestry was briefly noted in William Stukeley’s 1746 Palaeographia Britannica, it took until 1767 for the first detailed account to appear in English in the appendix to Andrew Ducarel’s Anglo-Norman Antiquities written by Smart Lethieullier.

7. Aesop’s Fables feature in the borders

While the central sections detail the Norman Conquest, the Bayeux Tapestry’s upper and lower borders are filled with mythological figures, animals and Aesop’s Fables. Four separate fables have been identified: The Fox and the Crow, The Wolf and the Crane, The Wolf and the Kid and The Wolf and the Lamb.

One interesting theory for the fables’ inclusion suggests they are subversive messages from the presumed Anglo-Saxon creators of the Tapestry, commissioned to depict the Norman Conquest, but perhaps with bitterness about the events.

8. Halley’s Comet is depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry

In February 1066, less than two months after Harold had seized the English throne following Edward’s death, Halley’s comet appeared in the sky. Contemporary superstition held that this was an omen of great transformation, perhaps an epic downfall or regime change. For that reason, comets were referred to as ‘the terror of kings’ during the Middle Ages.

To represent the imminent doom which awaited Harold, who met his death at the Battle of Hastings, Halley’s Comet thus appears on the Bayeux Tapestry.

Detail of Halley’s Comet

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

9. The Nazis planned to seal the Bayeux Tapestry

During Germany’s occupation of France in World War Two, staff of Nazi think-tank The Ahnenerbe moved the Tapestry from Bayeux Cathedral to a Juaye-Mondaye abbey, then to the Château de Sourches, before the Gestapo eventually housed it at the Louvre.

As Germany prepared to withdraw from Paris following the city’s liberation in August 1944, SS leader Heinrich Himmler sent a coded message ordering his troops to take the Tapestry to Berlin. However, British codebreakers intercepted the message and informed their French counterparts who regained control of the Louvre and possession of the Bayeux Tapestry. It is currently held at the Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux in Bayeux, Normandy, France.

10. Britain has twice failed to loan the Bayeux Tapestry

In recent years, Britain has made a habit of unsuccessful requests to borrow the Bayeux Tapestry. The first occasion was in 1953 to celebrate Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation. France initially agreed but conservation concerns led to them to renege.

On the 900th anniversary of the Battle of Hastings in 1966, Britain was again denied due to objections from Bayeux and France’s Inspector General of Historical Monuments.

Not quite a classic example of the idealised American dream – his father a more recognisable depiction of that – Boeing was a visionary who was able to transform a growing interest in aviation into a developmental industry.

Boeing’s success is owed greatly to his ability to understand, adapt and develop. So cutting edge was the nature of Boeing’s work, he himself is unlikely to have fully visualised the company’s trajectory.

Here’s the story of William E. Boeing and the creation of the pioneering Boeing company.

Boeing’s father was also a successful entrepreneur

Having been cut off by his father after immigrating to America, Wilhelm Böing, William’s father, forged his own way as a manual labourer before joining forces with Karl Ortmann whose daughter, Marie, he’d later marry.

After eventually going it alone, Wilhelm found his fortune amongst Minnesotan iron and timber before diversifying into finance and manufacturing. Wilhelm provided both the inspiration and the financial support for his son’s business ventures.

Boeing dropped out of Yale

Wilhelm died when William was just 8. After William’s mother Marie remarried, he was sent overseas to study in Vezey, Switzerland. He returned to continue his education at a Boston prep school before enrolling at Yale’s Sheffield Scientific School in Connecticut to study engineering.

In 1903, with a year remaining, Boeing dropped out and decided to turn inherited land in Gray’s Harbor, Washington into a timber yard. That December, the Wright Brothers would successfully pilot the first flight.

Boeing followed in his father’s footsteps

Like his father’s firm, Boeing’s timber company served the rising demands of the Industrial Revolution. Success enabled him to expand, first into Alaska, then Seattle where, in 1908, he set up the Greenwood Timber Company.

Two years later, his mother Marie’s death saw him inherit $1m, equivalent to $33m today. This funded diversification into boat building which followed the purchase of Heath Shipyard on the Duwamish River, Seattle.

Boeing’s initial experiences of flying frustrated him

In 1909, Boeing attended the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition in Washington and for the first time encountered aircraft, a popular hobby in post-Wright Brothers America. One year later, at the Dominguez Flying Meet in California, Boeing asked every pilot to take him for a flight with all but one declining. Boeing waited for three days before learning Louis Paulhan had already left.

When Boeing was eventually taken for a flight in a Curtiss hydroplane by a friend, he was disappointed, finding the plane uncomfortable and unstable. He began to learn about aircraft mechanics with an aim to eventually improve their design.

A portrait of William Boeing currently on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives.

Image Credit: SDASM Archives via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

A damaged plane led Boeing to aircraft manufacturing

Learning to fly was the logical next step so Boeing began lessons in 1915 at the Glenn L. Martin Flying School in Los Angeles. He bought one of Martin’s planes which crashed soon after. On learning repairs could take weeks, Boeing told friend and US Navy Commander, George Westervelt: “We could build a better plane ourselves and build it better”. Westervelt agreed.

In 1916, together they founded Pacific Aero Products. The company’s first attempt, affectionately called Bluebill, professionally referred to as the B&W Seaplane and later the Model C, was a huge success.

Westervelt’s military insight offered Boeing an opportunity

Westervelt left the company when transferred east by the Navy. Lacking engineering talent, Boeing convinced the University of Washington to begin an aeronautical engineering course in exchange for building a wind tunnel. Following the transformation of Heath Shipyard into a factory, Westervelt urged Boeing to apply for government contracts, anticipating US involvement in World War One.

A successful Model C demonstration in Florida resulted in an order of 50 from the US Navy. In 1916, Pacific Aero Products was renamed Boeing Air Company.

Boeing established the first international airmail route

When the war ended, the aviation sector suffered and became flooded with cheap military aircraft. Boeing manufactured furniture while he explored commercial aviation opportunities. In 1919, he trialled the first international airmail route between Seattle and Vancouver with ex-army pilot Eddie Hubbard.

Six years on, new legislation opened all airmail routes to public bidding. Boeing won the San Francisco and Chicago route. The venture saw Boeing establish the airline Boeing Air Transport which transported an estimated 1300 tonnes of mail and 6000 people in its first year.

Boeing’s rapid expansion prompted a legislative backlash

In 1921, Boeing’s operation was turning a profit. A decade on, it was doing so unfairly, according to the government. In 1929, Boeing Airplane Company and Boeing Air Transport merged with Pratt and Whitley to form United Aircraft and Transport Corporation. In 1930, a series of small airline acquisitions became United Air Lines.

As the conglomerate served every aspect of the aviation industry, it quickly amassed stifling power. The resultant 1934 Air Mail Act compelled aviation industries to separate flight operations from manufacturing.

A portrait of William E. Boeing around the time of his retirement from Boeing, displayed at the San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives.

Image Credit: San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

When Boeing’s company was broken up, he moved on

The Air Mail Act caused United Aircraft and Transport Corporation split into three entities: United Aircraft Corporation, Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. Boeing resigned as chairman and sold his stock. Later in 1934, he was awarded the Daniel Guggenheim Medal for engineering excellence, five years after Orville Wright won the inaugural award.

Boeing kept in touch with former colleagues and indeed returned to the company as a consultant during World War Two. He also had an advisory role in the launch of ‘Dash-80’ – later known as the Boeing 707 – the world’s first commercially successful jet airliner.

Boeing built communities with segregationist policies

Boeing then diversified into different sectors but particularly thoroughbred horse breeding and real estate. His housing policies were segregationist with the aim of producing new, white-only communities. Boeing’s developments could not be “sold, conveyed, rented or leased in whole or in part to any person not of the White or Caucasian race”.

Latterly, Boeing spent his free time at the Seattle Yachting Club where, in 1956, three days before his 75th birthday, he died of a heart attack.

Let’s start by defining precisely what we mean by ‘Cockney’. While the term now applies to all Londoners, especially those from the East End, the term originally referred exclusively to people who lived within earshot of the bells of St Mary-le-bow Church in Cheapside. Historically, the term ‘Cockney’ denoted working-class status.

Multiple sources identify the 1840s as the likely decade of Cockney rhyming slang’s inception. But it’s a notoriously difficult dialect to trace.

Here’s a short history of Cockney rhyming slang.

Contested origins

In 1839, Britain’s first professional police force, the Bow Street Runners, disbanded. They were replaced by the more formal, centralised Metropolitan Police. Until that point, criminals had run amok. Suddenly, discretion was required, one theory goes, and so Cockney rhyming slang emerged.

However, that explanation for Cockney rhyming slang’s emergence may be romanticised through folklore. One can question the likelihood of criminals openly discussing their deeds in the presence of police officers and note how few of the words were generally associated with crime. In this context, private communication seems far more likely than coded public communication.

An alternative theory suggests Cockney rhyming slang came about as a playful take on the language used by tradesmen, street vendors and dock workers. This certainly seems a better fit with Cockney rhyming slang’s general joviality and lightness.

Perhaps both explanations are valid, or one informed the other. Either way, the formula is distinct. Take a word – head, find a rhyming phrase ­­­­– loaf of bread, and in some cases drop the rhyming word to add a layer of mystery – loaf. ‘Use your head’ becomes ‘use your loaf’.

Another staple of Cockney rhyming slang is the frequent reference to celebrities, e.g. ‘Ruby’ from ‘Ruby Murray’ – a popular singer during the 1950s – meaning ‘curry’. While some terms passed from Cockney rhyming slang into popular lexicon – ‘porkies’ from ‘porky pies’ meaning ‘eyes’ for example – popular usage has dwindled over the last century.

Popular examples

Although it is still used today, Cockney rhyming slang now exists as a fading relic of a bygone age. To help you navigate this purposefully vague world, here are some examples of Cockney rhyming slang with explanations.

Apples and pears – stairs. This phrase derives from handcart vendors who would arrange their goods, particularly fruit and vegetables, in ‘stairs’ from most fresh to least fresh, or vice versa.

Early hours – flowers. Flower sellers would have to get up particularly order in order to prepare and transport their produce for market.

Gregory – Gregory Peck – neck. Like many Cockney rhyming slang words, this appears to have been selected purely because of the rhyme.

A cash machine in Hackney, London that included a Cockney rhyming slang option in 2014.

Image Credit: Cory Doctorow via Wikimedia Commons / CC

Helter-Skelter – air raid shelter. This is an example of how Cockney rhyming slang often imbued a word with emotional resonance.

Lion’s lair – chair. This would be the favourite chair of the family patriarch, not an area to be trespassing in loudly, particularly on a Sunday.

Merry-go-round – pound. This was understood to be a reference to the phrase “money makes the world go round”.

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Pimple and blotch ­– Scotch. A term for alcohol which serves as a warning about the dangers of over-consumption.

Stand to attention – pension. Taking a soldier as representative of those who have worked hard, paid in, and are now due to get their fair share.

Weep and wail ­– tale. This is used exclusively when describing a beggar’s tale, and the often-fanciful subject matter intended to illicit sympathy.

Initially introduced to combat the transmission of disease, contraception has become the primary function of condoms relatively recently. Condoms emerged as a crude animal product, then transformed into a frequently elitist and expensive commodity before eventually finding their place in the mass market as the cheap and disposable item we’re familiar with today.

But what exactly were the condom’s origins? And which technological advancements and cultural attitudes drove its development?

The origin of the word ‘condom’ is unknown

There are many plausible explanations for the origin of the word ‘condom’ but no prevailing conclusion. It might be derived from the Latin word condus meaning ‘a receptacle’. Or the Persian word kendu or kondu meaning ‘an animal skin used to store grain’.

It could be a reference to Dr. Condom who advised King Charles II on limiting the amount of illegitimate children he was having, though whose existence is widely disputed. Or it could have followed equally nominatively from farmers in Condom in France whose experience wrapping sausage meat in intestines may well have inspired them to invent prophylactics. The exact origin, or correct combination of the above, is unknown.

A possible depiction of ancient Egyptians wearing condoms.

Image Credit: Allthatsinteresting.com

The ancient Greeks may have invented condoms

The first disputed mention of prophylactic devices is found in the Grotte Des Combarelles caves in France. A wall painting dating back to 15,000 BC supposedly depicts a man wearing a sheath. However, it’s unclear whether it is indeed a sheath, or whether it was used as a condom if so.

Depictions on ancient Egyptian temples of men using linen sheaths from around 1000 BC share similarities with modern sources.

The ancient Greeks may have also invented the first female condom

Written in 4 AD, describing events from 2-3 years prior, Antoninus Liberalis’ Metamorphoses includes a tale about King Minos of Crete whose semen contained “serpents and scorpions”. Following the advice of Prokris, Minos inserted a goat’s bladder into a woman’s vagina before intercourse, believing it prevented the transmission of any and all diseased carried by serpents and scorpions.

Japan had a unique approach to making condoms

Glans condoms, which covered just the tip of the penis, are widely accepted to have been used throughout Asia during the 15th century. In China, they were made out of lamb intestines or oiled silk paper, whereas tortoise shells and animal horns were the chosen materials for prophylactics in Japan.

Interest in condoms rose following a syphilis outbreak

The first, undisputed account of condoms appeared in a text written by influential Italian physicist Gabrielle Fallopio (who discovered the Fallopian tube). Documenting research in response to the syphilis outbreak which had ravaged Europe and beyond in 1495, The French Disease was published in 1564, two years after Fallopio’s death. It detailed a linen sheath soaked in a chemical solution being used to cover the glans of the penis, fastened with a ribbon.

The first physical condoms were found in England in 1647

The earliest evidence of definitive physical use of condoms was uncovered during excavations of Dudley Castle between 1983 and 1993, during which a sealed latrine was found to contain 10 shaped animal membranes. 5 had been used and the rest were found inside each other unused. The latrine had been sealed by occupying Royalists in 1647 following the destruction of the castle’s defenses.

Writers and sex workers helped popularise condoms

By the 18th century, the contraceptive benefits of condoms were understood to a greater extent. Usage became common amongst sex workers and references became frequent amongst writers, notably Marquis De Sade, Giacomo Casanova and John Boswell.

Condoms of this period endured an extensive manufacturing process and so were expensive and likely only available to a small number of people. Casanova is said to have inflated condoms prior to using them in order to inspect them for holes.

The vulcanisation of rubber revolutionised condom production

In the mid-19th century, major developments in rubber manufacturing paved the way for mass-produced condoms. There remains some debate as to whether it was American Charles Goodyear who discovered vulcanisation in 1839 and patented it in 1844 or whether it was Englishman Thomas Hancock in 1843.

Nevertheless, vulcanisation revolutionised production, making condoms stronger and more malleable. The first rubber condom appeared in 1855, and by the 1860s, large-scale production was underway.

A condom from around 1900 made from an animal membrane, featured at London’s Science Museum.

Image Credit: Stefan Kühn

Cultural and religious attitudes limited condom usage

This boom in condom production, distribution and usage prompted a backlash in America. The 1873 Comstock laws effectively outlawed contraception, forcing condoms onto the black market which led to a huge rise in sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

It wasn’t until the outbreak of World War One in 1918 that contraceptive usage increased again, chiefly due to around 15% of allied forces contracting an STI during the war.

‘Cement dipping’ refined the production of rubber condoms

Another major development in condom production was Polish-German entrepreneur Julius Fromm’s 1912 invention of ‘cement dipping’. This involved liquefying rubber with gasoline or benzene, then coating a mould with the mixture, creating thinner, stronger latex condoms with a lifespan of five years, up from three months.

From 1920, water replaced gasoline and benzene which made production much safer. Towards the end of the decade, automated machinery allowed production to be scaled up which drastically reduced the price of condoms.

Trojan and Durex adapted well to conquer the market

In 1937, the US Food and Drug Administration labelled condoms a drug, which prompted a major improvement in quality control measures. Whereas a mere quarter of condoms were previously tested, each individual condom had to pass testing.

US-based Youngs Rubber Company and UK-based London Rubber Company were quick to adapt to the new legal requirements which gave their respective products, Trojan and Durex, a sizeable advantage over the competitors. In 1957, Durex released the first ever lubricated condom.

Modern attitudes have led to increased condom usage

The 1960s and 1970s saw a widespread lifting of bans on selling and advertising condoms, and an increase in education on the contraceptive benefits. The final Comstock Laws were overturned in 1965, France similarly removed anti-contraception laws two years later, and in 1978, Ireland allowed condoms to be legally sold for the first time.

Although the invention of the female contraceptive pill in 1962 relegated condoms to the position of the second most-favoured contraceptive where it remains today, the 1980s AIDS epidemic underpinned the importance of safe sex which saw sales and usage of condoms skyrocket.

Part of a larger frieze of classical Greek sculptures and inscriptions, the Elgin Marbles date back to the 5th century BC and were built to be displayed in the Parthenon at the Athenian Acropolis.

They were controversially moved to Great Britain by Lord Elgin between 1801 and 1805, causing a heated repatriation debate between Greece and Britain which is still ongoing to this day.

Here are 10 facts about the Elgin Marbles.

1. The Elgin Marbles are a section of a larger sculpture

The Elgin Marbles are classical Greek sculptures and inscriptions that once formed part of a larger frieze that adorned the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis. They were originally built under the supervision of Phidias between 447 BC and 432 BC at which point the Parthenon was dedicated to Athena, the goddess of war and wisdom. The Elgin Marbles are therefore over 2450 years old.

2. They are a symbol of Athenian victory and self-affirmation

The frieze originally decorated the exterior of the Parthenon’s inner section and is thought to depict the festival of Athena, a battle at the marriage feast of Pirithous and Athena and many Greek gods and goddesses.

The Parthenon was built in the aftermath of Athens’ victory over the Persians at Plataea in 479 BC. Having returned to the ransacked city, the Athenians began an extensive process of rebuilding the settlement. As such, the Parthenon is considered a symbol of Athenian victory, reaffirming the region’s power after its sacred city was destroyed.

3. They were taken when Greece was under Ottoman rule

The Ottoman Empire ruled Greece from the mid-15th century until 1833. After fortifying the Acropolis during the Sixth Ottoman-Venetian War (1684-1699), the Ottomans used the Parthenon to store gunpowder. In 1687, Venetian cannon and artillery fire resulted in the Parthenon being blown up.

During a siege in the first year of the Greek War of Independence (1821-1833), the Ottomans tried to melt lead in the Parthenon’s columns to make bullets. Within the last 30 years of the Ottoman’s near 400-year rule, the Elgin Marbles were taken.

4. Lord Elgin oversaw their removal

In 1801, the 7th Lord of Elgin, Thomas Bruce, who served as Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in Constantinople employed artists to take casts and drawings of the Parthenon Sculptures under the supervision of Neapolitan court painter, Giovanni Lusieri. This was the extent of Lord Elgin’s original intentions.

However, he later argued a firman (royal decree) obtained from the Sublime Porte (official government of the Ottoman Empire) permitted him to “take away pieces of stone with old inscriptions or figures thereon”. Between 1801 and 1805, Lord Elgin oversaw the extensive removal of the Elgin Marbles.

5. The documents permitting their removal were never verified

The original firman was lost if it ever existed. No version was found in the Ottoman archives despite their scrupulous record-keeping of royal decrees.

What does survive is a supposed Italian translation which was presented to a parliamentary inquiry into the Elgin Marbles’ legal status in Britain in 1816. Even then, it wasn’t Lord Elgin himself who presented it but his associate Reverend Philip Hunt, the last person to speak at the inquiry. Hunt had apparently retained the document 15 years after it was issued despite Elgin previously testifying he was unaware of its existence.

A section of the Elgin Marbles.

Image Credit: Shutterstock

6. Elgin paid for removal himself and lost money on the sale

Having unsuccessfully petitioned the British government for assistance, Lord Elgin paid for the removal and transportation of the Elgin Marbles himself at a total cost of £74,240 (equivalent to around £6,730,000 in 2021).

Elgin originally intended to decorate his home, Broomhall House, with the Elgin Marbles but a costly divorce forced him to offer them for a sale. He agreed to sell the Elgin Marbles to the British government for a fee determined by an 1816 parliamentary inquiry. Ultimately, he was paid £35,000, less than half his expenditure. The government then gifted the Marbles to the trusteeship of the British Museum.

7. Curators at the Acropolis Museum have left space for the Elgin Marbles

The Elgin Marbles represent roughly half of the original Parthenon frieze and they remain on display at the British Museum’s purpose-built Duveen Gallery. The vast majority of the other half currently resides at the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

The Acropolis Museum has left a space beside their portion of the sculptures, meaning a continuous and near complete frieze could be displayed if Britain ever elects to return the Elgin Marbles to Greece. Replicas of the portion held in the British Museum are also kept at the Acropolis Museum.

8. The Elgin Marbles have been damaged in Britain

After suffering from air pollution which was rife in London in the 19th and 20th centuries, the Elgin Marbles were irreparably damaged in bodged restoration attempts at the British Museum. The most misjudged attempt occurred in 1937-1938, when Lord Duveen commissioned a team of masons equipped with 7 scrapers, a chisel and a carborundum stone to remove discolouration from the stones.

This appears to have been the result of misunderstanding that white marble from Mount Pentelicus naturally develops a honey-coloured hue. Up to 2.5mm of marble were removed in some places.

A part of the East Pediment of the Parthenon Structures, exhibited in the British Museum.

Image Credit: Andrew Dunn / CC BY-SA 2.0

9. The British government refuses to repatriate the Elgin Marbles

Successive Greek governments have rejected Britain’s claim to ownership of the Elgin Marbles and have called for their repatriation to Athens. British governments have taken their lead from the 1816 parliamentary inquiry that found Elgin’s removal of the Elgin Marbles to be legal, insisting that they are therefore British property.

In September 2021, UNESCO issued a decision calling for Britain to return the Elgin Marbles. However, a meeting between the two countries’ respective Prime Ministers two months later merely ended with a deferral to the British Museum who stand firm on their ownership assertion.

10. Four times as many people annually view the Elgin Marbles compared to the other Parthenon Sculptures

One of the British Museum’s main arguments for keeping the Elgin Marbles in London is the fact that on average 6 million people view them compared to just 1.5 million people viewing the Acropolis Museum’s sculptures. Repatriating the Elgin Marbles, the British Museum argues, would decrease their exposure to the public.

There is also a concern that repatriating the Elgin Marbles could have a wider impact and see museums all over the world returning artefacts which did not originate in their country. Some would of course argue this is the correct course of action.

A remorseless and occasionally brutal criminal, Turpin was subsequently romanticised through literature and film into a dashing, heroic Robin Hood type.

He terrorised the public in life and captivated them after death. Here are 10 facts to demystify Dick Turpin, one of Britain’s most infamous criminals.

1. The man and the myth are entirely different

False perceptions about Dick Turpin can be traced to William Harrison Ainsworth’s 1834 novel Rockwood. Ainsworth casts Turpin as a dashing highwayman gallantly outwitting corrupt authorities, performing robberies in a gentlemanly, almost honourable fashion. None of this was true.

Turpin was a selfish, violent career criminal who preyed on innocent people and struck fear into entire communities. One of Harrison’s most repeated claims, that Turpin once rode 150 miles from London to York in one night on his trusted horse Black Bess, was also a fabrication but the myth endured.

2. Turpin began his career as a butcher

Turpin was born in Hempstead, Essex, in 1705. His father’s job as a butcher offered him early direction in his career but also a route into crime. In the early 1730s, Turpin began purchasing venison poached from Epping Forest by criminals known as the Essex Gang.

He then began poaching himself alongside them. Soon the police offered a reward of £50 (equivalent to about £11,500 in 2021) for information leading to their arrest. However, this merely pushed the group towards more violent crimes such as robberies, assaults and murder.

The Bluebell Inn in Hempstead, Essex: the birthplace of Dick Turpin on 21 September 1705.

Image Credit: Barry Marsh, 2015

3. He did not discriminate between rich and poor

Turpin is often depicted as a Robin Hood figure stealing from the wealthy, a hero to the downtrodden. This was simply not the case. Turpin and his gangs raided rich and poor alike as the shocking Earlsbury Farm robbery of 4 February 1735 makes clear.

Elderly Joseph Lawrence was bound, dragged, pistol-whipped, beaten and forced to sit on a lit fire. Lawrence’s servant Dorothy was also raped by one of Turpin’s associates.

4. Turpin committed a series of robberies in 1735

Turpin’s career as a highwayman began with a series of robberies between Epping Forest and Mile End starting on 10 April 1735. Further robberies at Barnes Common, Putney, Kingston Hill, Hounslow and Wandsworth followed in quick succession.

Following the robberies, Turpin and former Essex Gang member Thomas Rowden were reportedly spotted between 9-11 October 1735. A new £100 reward (comparable to roughly £23,000 in 2021) was offered for their capture and when it failed, residents raised their own reward. This also failed but the increased notoriety likely contributed to Turpin going into hiding.

5. Turpin may have hidden in the Netherlands

Between the October 1735 sightings and February 1737, nothing is known of Turpin’s movements and activities. Several contemporary press reports suggested he’d been spotted in the Netherlands but this may have been a consequence of his considerable fame.

Turpin was known to have a hideout in a cave in Epping Forest but gamekeepers in the area were aware of this. Nevertheless, in February 1737, he was back robbing people at gunpoint, first in Hertfordshire then Leicestershire and London with new accomplices Matthew King and Stephen Potter.

6. Turpin murdered a gamekeeper’s servant and changed his identity

An altercation at Leytonstone’s Green Man pub led to the fatal shooting of Turpin’s abettor Matthew King, possibly inadvertently by Turpin himself. The aftermath of the shooting changed the course of Turpin’s life irrevocably.

Having escaped to his Epping Forest hideout, Turpin was spotted by Thomas Morris, a gamekeeper’s servant. Morris confronted him alone and was duly shot and killed. Though Turpin continued with a spate of robberies, he soon went into hiding again, emerging not as Dick Turpin but with the false identity of John Palmer. A new £200 reward (roughly worth £46,000 in 2021) was offered for his capture.

7. Turpin’s downfall began with the murder of a chicken

Having adopted the identity of John Palmer and posing as a horse trader in Yorkshire, Turpin instigated his own demise by murdering hunting associate John Robinson’s game-cock on 2 October 1738. When Robinson angrily responded, Turpin threatened to also kill him which brought the incident to the attention of 3 local justices.

Turpin refused to pay the surety demanded and so was committed to the House of Correction at Beverley, a state of imprisonment from which he was never freed.

8. Turpin was caught out by his handwriting

Awaiting trial in York, Turpin wrote to brother-in-law, Pompr Rivernall, in Hampstead. The letter revealed Turpin’s true identity and pled for false character references for John Palmer. Either reluctant to pay the charge for York postage or to associate himself with Turpin, Rivernall refused the letter which was then moved to the Saffron Walden post office.

There, James Smith, a former teacher who incredibly had taught Turpin to write at school, recognised the handwriting immediately. After alerting the authorities and travelling to York Castle to identify Turpin, Smith collected a £200 reward offered by the Duke of Newcastle.

The site of Dick Turpin’s grave at St George’s Church in Fishergate, York.

Image Credit: Old Man Leica, 2006

9. The charges against Turpin were technically invalid

Turpin was charged with stealing 3 horses from Thomas Creasy. While there is no doubt Turpin deserved retribution for his extensive crimes, the actual charges brought against him at his trial were invalid.

The charge sheet stated Turpin stole 3 horses in Welton on 1 March 1739. By all accounts, he did commit this crime, but it actually occurred in Heckington in August 1738, rendering the charges invalid.

10. Turpin’s body was stolen after he was hanged

Having been sentenced to death for stealing horses, Turpin was hanged at Knavesmire racetrack. Yet more ironically, Turpin’s hangman, Thomas Hadfield, was a former highwayman. On 7 April 1739, aged 33, Turpin’s life of crime came to an end.

After he was hanged, his body was interred at St George’s Church in York where it was quickly stolen by body-snatchers. This was not uncommon at the time and was occasionally permitted for medical research however it was unpopular with the public. The body-snatchers were soon apprehended and Turpin’s body reburied at St Georges with quicklime.

St Andrew is commonly associated with Scotland: Andrew died by crucifixion on an X-shaped cross, which is now represented by the white cross of the Scottish flag. But the saint’s significance stretches far beyond Scottish shores.

People from many places all over the world hold St Andrew in the highest regard because of his teachings and endeavours. He is the patron saint of 6 countries and several cities. And yet despite featuring prominently in the Bible, relatively little is known about him.

In light of that, here are 10 facts about St Andrew’s life and legacy. 

1. He was born in Israel

St Andrew was born between 5 and 10 AD in Bethsaida in Galilee, in what is now Israel. He was the son of Jonah, and his brother, Simon Peter, would later become St Peter.

Throughout his life, St Andrew travelled far and wide preaching Jesus’ teachings, and his influence endured long after his death. For this reason, many places have a personal connection with St Andrew and claim him as their patron saint.

A 14th-century depiction of Jesus’ initial interaction with St Peter and St Andrew, his first two disciples, painted by Lorenzo Veneziano.

Image Credit: Gemäldegalerie Museum, Berlin / Public Domain

2. He was Jesus’ first disciple

Andrew and his brother Simon Peter were the first of Jesus’ 12 disciples. Both fishermen, they are said to have immediately followed Jesus when he stated, “come after me, and I will make you fishers of men.”

The Byzantine Church honours Andrew with the Greek name ‘Protokletos’ which means ‘the first called’. Andrew remained one of Jesus’ closest disciples, perhaps most memorably spotting the boy with “five barley loaves and two fish” before Jesus fed the five thousand.

3. He was crucified on an x-shaped cross 

Long after Jesus was crucified, Andrew continued to advance his teachings, instilling even Maximilla – the wife of Roman proconsul Aegeas who swore to stamp out Christianity – with an interest in Christian teachings.

In 60 AD, Aegeas ordered Andrew to be crucified. Believing himself to be unworthy of the same fate as Jesus, Andrew requested an x-shaped cross. This is represented by the saltires which feature prominently on flags, such as Scotland’s, that acknowledge St Andrew.

4. St Andrew is not just Scotland’s patron saint

Many different locations have felt blessed with Andrew’s presence. For that reason, he is the patron saint of many places, including 6 countries – Barbados, Romania, Russia, Scotland, Spain and Ukraine – and various cities – Amalfi, Pienza and Sarzana (Italy), Luqa (Malta), Parañaque (Philippines) and Patras (Greece).

St Andrew is also the patron saint of fishermen, singers and pregnant women and is believed to offer protection against sore throats and gout.

5. His remains were repeatedly moved

Andrew preached Jesus’ teachings far and wide. After his death, his remains were transported further and wider. Around 357 AD, Roman emperor Constantius II ordered Andrew’s remains to be moved from Patras to Constantinople (now Instanbul). In 1208, Cardinal Peter of Capua took the remains to his native Amalfi.

While another story suggests a Greek monk named Regulus brought some of Andrew’s remains to Scotland, it is more likely that the Bishop Acca of Hexham, a renowned collector of religious relics, purchased them in 732 AD.

6. St Andrews Cathedral in Fife became a pilgrimage site for the saint

The apparent presence of relics of St Andrew – a tooth, kneecap, arm and finger – in Scotland saw St Andrews Cathedral in Fife become a popular site of medieval pilgrimage. This was until the 16th century when it fell into disrepair because Catholic mass was outlawed during the Scottish reformation.

In 1870, the Archbishop of Amalfi sent a piece of St Andrew’s shoulder blade to Scotland and in 1969 Pope Paul VI gifted Cardinal Gordon Gray part of the saint’s skull. The relics are displayed at St Andrew’s altar in the Metropolitan Cathedral of St Mary in Edinburgh.

7. St Andrew inspired a Scottish tribe

Another connection between Scotland and St Andrew reportedly occurred in 832 AD when King Angus II led his army of Picts and Scots against Athelstan’s Saxons in modern-day East Lothian. Outnumbered and pessimistic, Angus prayed for help, vowing to make St Andrew patron saint of Scotland if his army was victorious.

On the morning of battle, clouds formed in a saltire shape in the sky. This perceived divine intervention inspired the Pict-Scot army who overcame their enemy and killed Athelstan. Angus is then said to have honoured his vow.

8. St Andrew is intrinsically linked to Scotland’s independence

The formalisation of St Andrew as Scotland’s patron saint followed from the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath. Written by Scottish barons to Pope John XXII who had excommunicated Robert the Bruce, the letter is both a declaration of Scotland’s independence from England and a commitment to Christ.

The letter states the belief that “the most gentle Saint Andrew” would keep Scots “under his protection as their patron for ever”. Andrew’s brother being St Peter, the leader of the Roman Catholic church, held huge sway over Pope John XXII.

9. St Andrew’s Scottish iconography predates the national flag

St Andrew was commonly depicted in Scottish iconography long before the country’s national flag was created in his honour. He was featured on official seals from 1180 onwards, notably the seals of the Guardians of Scotland who ruled over the country in the absence of a king during the Scottish Wars of Independence in 1286.

Just under a century later, in 1385, the Parliament of Scotland insisted Scottish soldiers should distinguish themselves with a white saltire on a blue background. Since then, this has been Scotland’s national flag.

The crucifixion of St Andrew on a ‘cruz decussata’ of which he became symbolic.

Image Credit: pt.aleteia.org / CC BY-SA 4.0

10. St Andrew’s Day originated in the USA

A day dedicated to St Andrew was only established in the mid-18th century, and surprisingly it was neither instigated in Scotland nor any other place who claimed St Andrew as their patron saint.

In 1729, a group of wealthy Scottish ex-pats set up the St Andrew’s Society of Charleston in South Carolina, USA, and celebrated St Andrew’s Day on 30 November, the anniversary of his crucifixion. The St Andrew’s Society of the State of New York then helped popularise the day from 1756 onwards.

After overcoming the loss of both legs in a flight crash aged 21, Bader stayed in the military, making a name for himself as a fearsome and effective fighter pilot. Bader’s combat career was cut short when he was forced to bail out of his badly damaged Spitfire over the coast of France in 1941. He would remain in a Nazi POW camp until the end of the war.

Though he was outspoken and often controversial in his post-RAF career, Bader was awarded a Knight Bachelor in 1976 for his campaigning for people with disabilities.

Here are 10 facts about Douglas Bader.

1. Bader lost both legs in a misjudged plane manoeuvre

Just 18 months into his RAF career, in 1931, Bader lost both legs while training to defend his Hendon Air Show ‘Pairs’ title. Despite warnings not to attempt acrobatics below 500 feet, Bader performed a slow roll at low altitude and caught the tip of his Bristol Bulldog’s left wing on the ground.

Bader’s wry log of the incident read: “Crashed. Slow-rolled near the ground. Bad show”.

2. He worked in the oil industry

Following his devastating crash, Bader was discharged from the RAF and, aged 23, found employment at the Asiatic Petroleum Company, a joint venture between Shell and Royal Dutch.

Though Bader would rejoin the RAF and serve during World War Two, he returned to Shell after the war. He worked there until 1969, when he joined the Civil Aviation Authority.

Douglas Bader by Ragge Strand, August 1955.

Image Credit: National Archives of Norway / CC BY 4.0

3. Bader was a hugely successful air fighter

Throughout his military career, Bader was credited with 22 aerial victories, 4 shared victories, 6 probables, 1 shared probable and 11 enemy aircraft damaged.

Bader’s heroism is unquestioned. But it is hard to precisely quantify his aerial success due to the unreliability of his favoured ‘Big Wing’ approach; this was the tactic of uniting multiple squadrons to outnumber enemy aircraft, the results of which were often embellished to convince others of its effectiveness.

4. He may have been the victim of friendly fire

On 9 August 1941, while on a raid over the French coast, the fuselage, tail and fin of Bader’s Spitfire were destroyed, forcing Bader to bail out into enemy territory, where he was captured.

Bader himself believed he collided with a Bf 109, however German records state no Bf 109 was lost that day. Neither of the 2 Luftwaffe pilots who claimed victories on 9 August, Wolfgang Kosse and Max Meyer, asserted they shot down Bader.

Who shot down Douglas Bader?

However, RAF Flight Lieutenant “Buck” Kasson did claim to have hit a Bf 109’s tail that day, forcing the pilot to bail out. It has been suggested that this could have been Bader’s Spitfire, rather than a German Bf 109, hinting that friendly fire may have ultimately destroyed Bader’s plane.

5. Bader was captured in France near his father’s grave

In 1922, Bader’s father, Frederick, a Major in the British Army, was buried in Saint-Omer having stayed in France after being wounded during World War One.

19 years later, when Bader was forced to bail out of his destroyed Spitfire, he was captured by 3 German officers and taken to the nearest hospital. This just happened to be in Saint-Omer.

6. German officers allowed the British to send a new prosthetic leg for Bader

During Bader’s bailout in 1941, his right prosthetic leg was trapped and ultimately lost when he deployed his parachute. Such was the high regard in which German officers held Bader, they arranged for British officials to send him a new prosthetic leg.

With Reichsmarschall Goering’s approval, the Luftwaffe provided unrestricted access over Saint-Omer, allowing the RAF to deliver the leg along with socks, powder, tobacco and chocolate.

7. Bader repeatedly attempted to escape captivity

While held prisoner, Bader saw it as his mission to frustrate the Germans as much as possible (a practice called ‘goon-baiting’). This frequently involved planning and attempting escapes. Bader’s initial attempt involved tying bedsheets together and fleeing out of the window of the Saint-Omer hospital he was originally treated at – a plan foiled by a hospital worker’s betrayal.

How long was Douglas Bader a prisoner of war?

In 1942, Bader escaped from the camp at Stalag Luft III in Sagan before eventually being transferred to the ‘escape-proof’ facility of Colditz, where he remained until liberation in 1945.

A 1945 picture from within Colditz Prisoner of War camp featuring Douglas Bader (front row, centre).

Image Credit: Hodder & Stoughton Publishers.

8. Bader led the RAF’s victory flypast in June 1945

After his release from Colditz, Bader was promoted to Group Captain and given the honour of leading a victory flypast of 300 aircraft over London in June 1945.

This befitted the reputation he had developed both within the RAF and with the general public for his heroism during World War Two, particularly the Battle of Britain.

9. He wrote the foreword to a Nazi pilot’s biography

In the 1950s, Bader wrote the foreword to the biography of Hans-Ulrich Rudel, the most decorated German pilot of World War Two. In Stuka Pilot, Rudel defended Nazi policy, criticised the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht for “failing Hitler” and prepared the ground for his subsequent Neo-Nazi activism.

Bader did not know the extent of Rudel’s views when he wrote the foreword but claimed prior knowledge would not have deterred him from contributing.

10. Bader became a prominent campaigner for people with disabilities

In later life, Bader used his position to campaign for people with disabilities, particularly in employment settings. He famously said, “a disabled person who fights back is not disabled, but inspired”.

In recognition of his commitment to the cause, Bader was awarded a Knight Bachelor (a rank in the British honours system typically awarded for public service) in 1976. Shortly after his death in 1982, The Douglas Bader Foundation was formed in his honour by family and friends, several of whom had flown alongside him in World War Two.

Quaint but cramped, safe but restricting, they were often far from ideal in terms of comfort. Nonetheless, Anderson shelters played a vital role during the war and undoubtedly saved thousands of lives.

Here are 10 facts about Anderson shelters, the innovative structures which became an iconic symbol of Britain’s war effort.

1. Anderson shelters were named after the Minister of Home Security

In November 1938, while serving as Lord Privy Seal and Minister of Home Security, Sir John Anderson was asked by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain to prepare Britain for defense against bombing raids. The resultant shelters Anderson commissioned were named after him.

Anderson shelters were named after Sir John Anderson, the Minister of Home Security at the outbreak of World War Two.

Image Credit: Karsh of Ottawa / CC BY-SA 3.0 NL

2. The shelters could fit up to 6 people

Anderson commissioned engineers William Patterson and Oscar Carl Kerrison to find a viable structure. Their design consisted of 14 steel panels – 8 internal sheets and 6 curved sheets bolted together to cover the structure. The structure was to be buried over 1m into the ground and covered with soil.

Just 1.4m wide, 2m long and 1.8m tall, the shelters were designed to accommodate a maximum of 6 people – 4 adults and 2 children. Following a thorough evaluation of the concept, Anderson, along with Bertram Lawrence Hurst and Sir Henry Jupp from the Institution of Civil Engineers, adapted the model for mass production.

3. Anderson shelters were free for some people

Anderson shelters were provided free of charge for people with household annual incomes of less than £250 (equivalent to approximately £14,700 today). They cost £7 (roughly £411 today) to buy for everyone else.

At the end of the war, many local authorities collected the corrugated iron, though people who wished to purchase their shelters could pay a nominal fee.

4. Anderson shelters were initially pre-emptive

Britain’s preparations for air raid shelters began in 1938, and the first Anderson shelter was set up in Islington, London, in February 1939. By the time Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, 1.5 million Anderson shelters had already been constructed. 

While Britain’s pre-emptive approach had prepared them well, the substantial casualties suffered during the Luftwaffe’s month-long Blitz bombing campaign underlined the need for Britain to go further. An additional 2.1 million Anderson shelters were built during the war.

5. People rebelled against the use of Anderson shelters

After heavy bombing raids in early September 1940, thousands of Londoners flocked to underground stations against government advice, rather than using Anderson shelters. The police didn’t intervene, and some station managers provided additional toilet facilities.

On 21 September, government policy was changed and 79 stations were fitted with bunks for 22,000 people and 124 canteens. First aid facilities and chemical toilets were also supplied. The underground stations housed only 170,000 people during World War Two bombing raids, but they were regarded as one of the safest forms of shelter.

An intact Anderson shelter remains standing despite the destruction of nearby properties on Latham Street in Poplar, London. 1941.

Image Credit: Ministry of Information Photo Division / Public Domain

6. Anderson shelters were tough to endure during winter

While the corrugated steel sheets provided protection from bomb blasts, they offered little protection from the elements. Anderson shelters were bitingly cold during the winter months while rainfall often led to flooding and sometimes the collapse of structures.

As a result, many people would defy government instructions to spend the majority of their time in Anderson shelters. Some families would take their cue from the air raid siren while others would ignore it altogether and remain in their homes.

7. Decoration competitions were held

People were free to decorate and where possible add comfort to their shelters as they pleased. Bunk beds could be purchased but were often built at home. As a way of boosting wartime morale, some communities held competitions to determine the best-decorated shelters in the neighbourhood.

People also took advantage of the fact that shelters require a considerable amount of soil above and to the sides of the structure to support it. Encouraged by the government’s ‘Dig for Victory’ campaign in 1940, which implored citizens to grow their own food at home, vegetables and flowers were often planted in the upturned soil on or near a household’s Anderson shelter.

8. Anderson shelters were not ideal for urban areas

Given the requirement for garden space to accommodate an Anderson shelter, they were not a particularly viable option in built-up urban areas. Around a quarter of the population did not have gardens.

A 1940 survey found that only 27% of Londoners stayed in an Anderson shelter, while 9% slept in public shelters, 4% used underground stations, and the rest opted to stay in their homes.

9. Anderson shelters were not the most effective option available

During World War Two, Spain utilised the shelter model of engineer Ramón Perera. Larger and sturdier than Anderson shelters, Perera’s shelter proved effective: Barcelona only suffered around 2,500 casualties from 194 bombing raids, earning Perera the nickname ‘the man who saved Barcelona’.

The British government ignored Perera’s expertise and rejected his shelter model. Confidential reports in Britain expressed regret at this decision, suggesting the total of 50,000 Britons killed during Luftwaffe raids could have been reduced.

A couple sleeping in their Morrison shelter during the war.

Image Credit: Ministry of Information Photo Division / Public Domain

10. Anderson shelters were replaced by Morrison shelters

When it became common knowledge that the public preferred to stay in their homes and would generally avoid using their Anderson shelters, a new, indoor version was prioritised. This arrived in 1941 in the form of the Morrison shelter, named after Herbert Morrison who had replaced Anderson as the Minister of Home Security.

The Morrison shelter was essentially a large metal cage which, for many of the approximately 500,000 people who had one installed, doubled up as a dining table.