Surrounded by treacherous waters, outfitted with the latest security technology, and strictly managed, Alcatraz was deemed ‘escape-proof’. During its 29 years in operation, there were 14 recorded escape attempts involving 36 inmates, yet no successful escapes have ever been officially confirmed. Among the attempts, 23 inmates were captured, 7 were fatally shot as they fled, and at least 3 drowned.

However, one escape attempt resulted in the disappearance of escapees Frank Morris and Clarence and John Anglin. Presumed drowned, their bodies were never recovered, leaving their fate shrouded in mystery. Amidst such tight security, how did these men break out of Alcatraz, and is there a chance they’re still on the run?

The men involved

Following its designation as a Federal prison, Alcatraz was reinforced with tougher iron bars, and a series of strategically positioned guard towers. Along with strict rules on inmates behaviour which included multiple checks each day of the prisoners, it was the ultimate maximum security prison.

Frank Morris, a convict with a history of bank robbery, burglary, and repeated prison escapes, arrived at Alcatraz in January 1960. Later that year he was joined by John Anglin, followed by John’s brother Clarence in early 1961. Their fellow inmate, Allen West, had been incarcerated at Alcatraz since 1957.

The 4 men knew each other well from prior incarcerations. Assigned to adjoining cells, the men spoke at night and began hatching an escape plan, with Morris, known for his intellect, taking the lead in the planning.

Left: Frank Morris, Centre: John Anglin, Right: Clarence Anglin, Inset: Allen West (who did not manage to escape with the others)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / US Federal Government / Public Domain (Allen West c/o Earl Of Sandwish / CC BY-SA 4.0)

The escape

On 12 June 1962, a routine morning bed check revealed that three prisoners were no longer in their cells. Instead, each cell contained a dummy papier-mâché head, which had deceived the night guards into thinking the prisoners were in their beds. Upon the discovery, Alcatraz immediately went into lockdown, and an intensive search was launched.

The FBI were called into help, leveraging their nationwide offices to review their records of the missing prisoners and provide any information on their previous escape attempts (all three had made them before). They also interviewed the prisoners’ relatives, and advised nearby boat operators to lookout for debris. The next morning, sailors on a merchant freighter reported seeing a body floating in the bay, yet this slipped beneath the waves before it could be recovered. 

On 14 June, a packet of letters related to the men sealed in rubber was recovered, and the Coast Guard found some paddle-like pieces of wood floating in the water.

Six days later, bits of rubber inner-tube washed-up on the shore near the Golden Gate Bridge, and the next day a homemade life-vest was also discovered near Cronkhite Beach. Over the next 10 days, the land, air, and sea surrounding Alcatraz and beyond were extensively searched – to no avail.

How did they escape?

With the aid of the Coast Guard, Bureau of Prison authorities, and others – including inmate Allen West, who had not made it out of his cell in time to join the escapees – the FBI gradually pieced together the intricate escape plot.

Reportedly, the men had begun planning their escape the preceding December after stumbling upon discarded saw blades from the prison workshops and metal spoons from the dining hall. Using these to craft a makeshift drill from the motor of a broken vacuum cleaner, they carefully loosened the air vents under their sinks, concealing the drilled holes with painted cardboard. (To hide the noise they made drilling, Morris played his accordion during music hour – an hour each day when music was piped into the prison to calm the prisoners.

Behind the cells lay an unguarded utility corridor, which they accessed, eventually reaching the roof of their cell block. The men crafted papier-mâché versions of their heads (made from toilet paper, soap, toothpaste, along with flesh-tone paint from the maintenance workshop and real human hair collected from the floor of the prison barbershop), and stuffed clothes and towels under their blankets, to fool guards into thinking they were asleep in their beds when instead they were on the roof, secretly building and hiding the tools needed for their escape. 

Left: The image, taken in Clarence Anglin’s cell, shows how the dummy heads were arranged to fool the guards into thinking the inmates were still asleep. Right: Profile of the dummy head found in Morris’ cell.

Image Credit: Both: U.S. Marshals

Their months of undetected labour included crafting over 50 prison-issued World War Two-era raincoats (made from cotton with rubber backing) into makeshift life-jackets and a rubber raft, with its seams stitched together and sealed by the prison’s hot steam pipes. They also constructed wooden paddles and repurposed a concertina stolen from another inmate to inflate their raft.

Using a network of pipes, they were able to climb to the ceiling (approx 9 metres high) and pry open the ventilator at the top of the shaft, temporarily securing it by fashioning a fake bolt from soap.

On the evening of 11 June 1962, their raft was ready and they initiated their plan. Allen West was thwarted when discovering the loose cement used to reinforce the concrete surrounding his vent had hardened, preventing his escape. However, the three others squeezed through their cell’s vents, got into the utility corridor, collected their equipment, and crawled up the ventilator pipes to the prison roof.

From there, they slid down the bakery smokestack pipe at the back of the cell house, scaled two 12-foot barbed wire fences, and stealthily made their way to the island’s northeast shore where searchlights couldn’t pick them out. From there, they launched their raft into the Pacific Ocean – all undetected by the prison’s security system.

Alcatraz cell containing an escape hole used by the 1962 escapees.

Image Credit: Shutterstock

What officially happened?

What happened to the escapees remains a mystery. They had planned to reach Angel Island, then cross the Raccoon Strait into Marin County, yet the FBI’s investigation concluded that it was unlikely they made it. 

Whilst some believed the men could have survived, the FBI claimed that the strong currents and cold Bay water stacked the odds against them, especially when pieces of raft and paddles washed up near Angel Island which they claimed indicated the men had drowned or died of hypothermia.

Inmate West had revealed the men’s plan was to steal clothes and a car once making it to land, yet seemingly no matching thefts were uncovered. The men’s families lacked the financial means to support the men, and over 17 years, no credible evidence emerged suggesting the men were still alive. Surveillance never detected them in their hometowns or at family gatherings.

The FBI officially closed the case on 31 December 1979, transferring it to the US Marshal Service, who vowed to continue the investigation until 2030, when all the men would be over 100 years old.

Why do some think the escapees actually made it?

Since the escape, doubts persist regarding the FBI’s claim of the escapee’s deaths. No bodies were recovered from the Bay, and the US Marshals Service suggested the raft and paddle might have been found on Angel Island itself, with footsteps leading away. Furthermore, a stolen car matched descriptions of a vehicle taken by 3 men in Marin County, who reportedly almost caused a collision that night.

Over 50 years later, the Anglin family also provided evidence the men might have survived. Clarence and John Anglin’s mother had apparently received Christmas cards and postcards signed by them for 3 years after the escape, along with a bunch of flowers sent to her anonymously every year until her death in 1973. At her funeral, two very tall men in heavy makeup were believed by family to be Clarence and John in disguise.

Numerous investigations followed tips, including a 1975 photo by a childhood friend, claiming to depict the Anglin brothers at a bar in Brazil. An analyst hired by the Anglin family verified the photograph’s legitimacy, although the FBI did not.

In 1989, Robert Anglin (brother to Clarence and John) claimed two men turned up to view the body of his dead father, wept, and left. That same year, two women claimed to have seen them on a farm in Florida, although no trace was found.

Someone claiming to be John Anglin wrote a letter to San Francisco’s police department in 2018, declaring that all three prisoners had survived their escape, but that he was the only one still alive, and would hand himself in in return for medical treatment. The FBI doubt the letter is real following inconclusive handwriting analysis, and never heard from him again. 

In June 2022, age-processed images of the men, who by now would be in their nineties, were released. These are significant, indicating there may be a potentially credible tip that at least one of the men is still alive, and highlighting the manhunt continues.

Not long after the escape, Alcatraz was closed in 1963 – apparently due to financial reasons. However, mysteries continue to surround Alcatraz as many of the prison’s documents remain missing. The fate of Alcatraz’s most notorious escapees remains unknown.

Kissinger’s pivotal role as US National Security Advisor and later as US Secretary of State under Presidents Nixon and Ford marked an era of intricate diplomatic engagements. His tenure as a key architect of US foreign policy during the tumultuous Vietnam War era, his groundbreaking diplomacy in détente with the Soviet Union, and his complex relations with China solidified his reputation as a shrewd and influential statesman.

However, his controversial realpolitik approach and prioritisation of national interests over ideological concerns, especially concerning US involvement in Vietnam and Chile, significantly influenced American foreign policy during some of the key events of the 20th century, igniting both acclaim and criticism.

Revered on the one hand and awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, Kissinger was also reviled, condemned by some as a war criminal. He continued to divide opinion and be the subject of debate until his death on 29 November 2023, aged 100. Here we explore more about Kissinger’s early life, rise to prominence, his diplomatic triumphs and controversies, and his enduring impact on the world stage. 

Early life

Henry Kissinger was born on 27 May 1923, in Fürth, Germany, to a Jewish family. Witnessing the rise of Nazism, the Kissinger family fled to the United States in 1938 to escape persecution. Settling in New York City, young Henry adapted to American life while preserving his deep intellectual curiosity and multilingual abilities, becoming a US citizen in 1943. 

He went on to serve 3 years in the US Army (volunteering for hazardous intelligence duties during the Battle of the Bulge and running a captured German town despite only being a Private), and later in the Counter Intelligence Corps where he tracked down Gestapo officers and other saboteurs, for which he was awarded the Bronze Star.

Kissinger had excelled academically, eventually earning a bachelor’s degree in political science from Harvard University in 1950. He then pursued a master’s degree and later a PhD in government at Harvard, focusing on the elusive concept of ‘peace’ in Europe. His doctoral dissertation, titled A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812-1822, reflected his keen interest in the interplay between power, diplomacy, and peace in shaping global affairs – an interest that would define his career.

Rise to prominence

Kissinger became a respected lecturer in international relations at Harvard University, where his expertise in foreign policy drew attention, leading to advisory roles and eventually a position at the Council on Foreign Relations. His expertise and publications on nuclear strategy and Cold War geopolitics (including Nuclear War and Foreign Policy, 1957 that said a limited atomic war was winnable) attracted the notice of political figures, including Nelson Rockefeller, who appointed Kissinger as an advisor in his presidential campaign.

However, it was President Richard Nixon who recognised Kissinger’s potential and appointed him as National Security Advisor in 1969 – a position that would give Kissinger enormous influence and sway over US foreign policy. Nixon relied on his advice, at a time when the Cold War was at its peak, with nuclear war recently averted over Cuba, American troops in Vietnam and the recent Russian invasion of Prague.

Kissinger’s influence expanded further when Nixon later appointed him Secretary of State in 1973, allowing him to navigate the complex terrain of global diplomacy with unprecedented authority. This step into politics propelled Kissinger onto the global stage, where his strategies and negotiations would leave a lasting impact on world affairs.

Kissinger and President Richard Nixon discussing the Vietnam situation in Camp David, 1972 (with Alexander Haig)

Diplomatic triumphs

Kissinger’s significant diplomatic initiatives were instrumental in the era’s key geopolitical shifts. During this time, America negotiated the Paris Peace Accords which finally ended its involvement in the Vietnam War, and opened up relations with China through Premier Zhou Enlai (putting diplomatic pressure on the Soviet leadership), leading to Nixon’s 1972 trip to China, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and hostility.

America also paved the way for disengagement agreements which brought about a cessation of hostilities in the brief 1973 Yom Kippur War in the Middle East between Egypt and Syria on the one hand and Israel on the other, thanks to Kissinger’s ‘shuttle diplomacy’.

Furthermore, Kissinger’s efforts in détente – the easing of tensions – resulted in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) with the Soviet Union, marking a pivotal moment in Cold War relations.

Henry Kissinger and Chairman Mao, with Zhou Enlai behind them in Beijing, early 70s

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Oliver Atkins (Jiang ) / Public Domain

Diplomatic controversies

While praised for his diplomatic acumen and strategic thinking, Kissinger’s tenure was not without controversy, and he faced persistent criticism. His rivalry with the Soviet Union and policies were often perceived as prioritising realpolitik (a system of politics or principles based on practical considerations over moral or ideological considerations), drawing ire from human rights advocates.

Additionally, his policy of the US supporting repressive authoritarian regimes in Latin America, notably Augusto Pinochet’s brutal military coup in Chile with the aim of overthrowing the Marxist President Salvador Allende, sparked criticism and protests for alleged involvement in coup d’états and human rights abuses in pursuit of political goals. 

Chilean President Augusto Pinochet shaking hands with Kissinger in 1976

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Archivo General Histórico del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores / CC BY 2.0 cl

His role in the secret US bombing campaigns in neutral Cambodia during the Vietnam War to deprive the communists of troops and supplies, orchestrated under his guidance, also drew fierce condemnation and accusations of war crimes. The destabilisation this brought was a factor in giving rise to Pol Pot’s brutal regime and the Khmer Rouge movement.

Awards

Despite these controversies, Kissinger received numerous accolades for his diplomatic contributions. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973 for his efforts in negotiating the Vietnam War ceasefire, although this accolade sparked controversy and two resignations from the Nobel Committee, and North Vietnam’s Le Duc Tho refused to accept. Additionally, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States, for his diplomatic endeavours.

Continued influence and legacy

Whilst Kissinger’s legacy remains deeply contested, his impact on US foreign policy was undoubtedly profound. Despite leaving office in 1977, he continued to be an influential figure in global affairs, founding Kissinger Associates, an international consulting firm. He remained a sought-after advisor, and was consulted by generations of leaders for decades afterward, from JFK to Biden, issuing his suggested diplomatic strategies and realpolitik approach (advocating for pragmatic, practical policies aligned with national interests).

Indeed after 9/11, then-president George W Bush asked Kissinger to chair the investigation into the attacks (though stood down shortly after) and advised over policy in Iraq after the 2003 invasion. Whilst Kissinger had advised Trump to accept Putin’s occupation of Crimea, after the Russian invasion, he instead argued Zelensky should get Ukraine to join NATO after peace was secured. Kissinger remains the only American to have dealt directly with every Chinese leader from Mao Zedong to Xi Jinping.

President Donald Trump with former National Security Advisor and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, 10 May 2017

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / The White House / Public Domain

Kissinger also served on the board of various companies, and wrote 21 books including his memoirs, notably White House Years and Years of Upheaval, which offer insights into the inner workings of diplomacy during tumultuous times.

Even in his later years, Kissinger’s perspectives on global politics continued to attract attention. He remained active in public speaking engagements (meeting Chinese President Xo Jinping in July 2023, after he had turned 100), offering insights and analysis on contemporary international challenges and geopolitical shifts (particularly regarding US-China relations, cybersecurity, and the balance of power).

Following Kissinger’s death, former US President George W Bush claimed the US had “lost one of the most dependable and distinctive voices on foreign affairs”, with the former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair describing him as an artist of diplomacy, motivated by “a genuine love of the free world and the need to protect it”. Nevertheless, this influential diplomat who found himself at the centre of power during some of the key events of the 20th century, continues to divide opinion.

Thousands of government files were kept under wraps for decades (and hundreds still are) fuelling many unproven conspiracy theories as to who might have killed America’s president – and why. Here we explore highlight some of the leading ones.

Emergence of conspiracy theories

Prime suspect, Lee Harvey Oswald, was implicated due to his actions before and after the assassination. His swift departure from the Texas School Book Depository, subsequent shooting of police officer Tippit, and capture in a theatre fuelled these suspicions. However, Oswald’s claim of being a “patsy” before being fatally shot by Jack Ruby added to the mystery surrounding JFK’s assassination.

Jack Ruby shoots Lee Harvey Oswald, 24 November 1963

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Robert H. Jackson / Public Domain

A week after Kennedy’s assassination, President Johnson launched an inquiry. After a thorough investigation, The Warren Commission’s report concluded that Oswald acted alone. The ‘magic bullet theory’ which stated that one bullet caused multiple injuries, supported this narrative. However, scepticism grew, with critics doubting its single bullet theory. 

This was further catalysed by the Zapruder film – amateur film footage of Kennedy’s assassination – which aired on TV in 1975, and sparked speculation of a second gunman due to Kennedy’s head seeming to knock backwards rather than forwards upon being shot. This led to the House Select Committee on Assassinations, who, in 1979, suggested a high probability of a conspiracy, without naming accomplices.

Intriguingly, the Committee also sealed many of its findings for 50 years. By this time, Vietnam and Watergate had eroded trust in government, so the withheld information amplified suspicions of a cover-up, fostering widespread cynicism towards official reports.

The top conspiracy theories

There are too many conspiracy theories to list, but some of the most well-known include:

Soviet Links:

Lee Harvey Oswald, a self-proclaimed Marxist, defected to the Soviet Union aged 20, but returned to the US disillusioned, along with his Russian-born wife, Marina, and a baby daughter. Speculation arose around a possible link between Oswald and the Soviets seeking revenge post Cuban Missile Crisis. However, Oswald’s well-known Russian ties and pro-Cuban sympathies make this theory improbable due to the risk of war with the US. Furthermore, both countries are said to have considered Kennedy easier to work with than Johnson.

Files released in 2021 revealed that between 27 September and 3 October Oswald had visited the Soviet and Cuban Embassies in Mexico City multiple times. Some speculate this trip may have been to plot assassination plans or his escape, amidst claims Oswald’s Marxist beliefs may have influenced his decision to target JFK.

Some theories also suggest American intelligence agencies might have been aware of Oswald’s intentions but allowed the assassination to occur due to their alleged desire to remove Kennedy from power.

Lee Harvey Oswald (centre) and unidentified others distributing pro-Castro leaflets in New Orleans, 16 August 1963. He was arrested shortly afterwards when he scuffled with anti-Castro Cuban exiles.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Originated from the report of the Warren Commission a US Government report / Public Domain

The Mob:

Some believed the mafia had helped JFK win the 1960 election by securing votes in Illinois, a key state. Subsequently, one theory links Kennedy’s unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba to the continued shutdown of mafia-run casinos. Consequently his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy‘s crackdown on the mob, including pursuing Jimmy Hoffa, intensified tensions. Some suggest Robert’s aggressive stance inadvertently triggered his brother’s assassination, provoking a retaliatory strike.

The CIA:

One theory suggests Kennedy’s assassination was an internal plot, perhaps carried out by a rogue element in the CIA due to strained relations following the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Though CIA denies involvement, Kennedy’s knowledge of their attempts on Fidel Castro’s life fuelled suspicions the agency orchestrated his murder to avoid exposure and disbandment.

Some also think anti-communist factions in the CIA perceived Kennedy’s diplomacy efforts as undermining America’s Cold War position. His assassination would maintain America’s confrontational stance.

The US Military Industrial Complex:

Kennedy’s approach to Vietnam hinted at a potential resolution without explicitly stating an intention to withdraw from the region. However, his death allowed for policy reversals, purportedly desired by the military, to escalate the US military engagement in Vietnam.

The Grassy Knoll:

In 1976, the Select Committee on Assassinations which reinvestigated JFK’s killing as well as Martin Luther King Jr.’s, concluded that there was “probably” a second shooter on the “grassy knoll”, a hill overlooking the site where Kennedy was assassinated. However, in 1982, The National Academy of Sciences Committee on Ballistic Acoustics found that reliable acoustic data did not support this claim.

The grassy knoll on the northwest side of Dealey Plaza has become legendary among conspiracy theory buffs as the purported site of a second shooter involved in the JFK assassination.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Mchristo19 / CC BY-SA 4.0

Umbrella Man:

In the Zapruder film footage of Kennedy’s assassination, a mysterious man carrying a black umbrella was caught raising it into the air as Kennedy’s car drove past, despite it being a warm day. Some claim he was signalling, while others thought he may have shot a poison dart to immobilise Kennedy, facilitating Oswald’s shots.

However Louie Steven Witt was later identified as ‘Umbrella Man’, and during a 1978 interview, claimed he had brought the umbrella to heckle Kennedy. He’d heard the umbrella’s association with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was a ‘sore spot’ with the Kennedy’s, as JFK’s father Joseph had also supported appeasement prior to World War Two.

Lyndon B Johnson:

JFK was apparently intending to replace Vice-President Lyndon Johnson, leading some to think Johnson was a suspect in Kennedy’s assassination. Indeed Kennedy’s long-time secretary, Evelyn Lincoln, was said to have drawn a list of suspects, with Johnson’s name top of the list.

The Driver:

One theory is that William Greer, the driver of the President’s car, turned around and shot JFK. This is based on reports from doctors of a bullet entry wound to the front of Kennedy’s neck, despite Kennedy’s official autopsy showing he’d been hit with two bullets – one that entered his upper back and exited below his neck, and one that hit him in the back of his head, exiting the front of his skull. However, this theory is partly based on a poor quality copy of the famous Zapruder film, and mostly disregarded.

Accident:

Author Bonar Menninger claims the fatal blow to Kennedy was an accident, caused when Secret Service agent George Hickey (riding in the car behind the presidential limousine) returned fire. He claims Hickey accidentally discharged his weapon after losing his balance when his car stopped suddenly. However, no eyewitnesses saw this, and Hickey denied firing his weapon.

South Vietnam: 

Some think Kennedy’s killing may have been an act of revenge following the assassination of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, in a CIA-enhanced coup just 3 weeks before, due to concern that Diem was about to hand control of the country to the communists.

Robert Croft’s picture showing JFK’s car on Elm Street, taken around z161.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Robert Croft / Public Domain

Some conspiracy theories are more plausible than others, though none of these have obviously yet been proven. However, some of the more bizarre theories that we probably can disregard include:

Extra-terrestrials:

Former US radio personality Milton William Cooper claimed that a gas pressure device killed Kennedy, allegedly supplied to the driver of his limo by aliens, due to speculation that JFK was prepared to uncover alleged Washington-alien collusion.

Ted Cruz’s father: 

During the 2016 presidential election campaign, Donald Trump implied during a phone interview with Fox News that the father of his last rival for the Republican nomination, Ted Cruz, was a known associate of Lee Harvey Oswald. Trump cited the National Enquirer as the source, claiming he had merely pointed out that the publication had featured a picture of Rafael Cruz and Oswald once having breakfast together.

Over the years, there have also been reports of various witnesses being intimidated or allegedly killed. Whilst a direct link between such events and the assassination can be hard to prove, they further add to speculation of a cover-up.

Conspiracy theories in the arts

Kennedy’s assassination (and many of these conspiracy theories) spurred a wave of books, documentaries, films, and official inquiries, fuelling yet more conspiracy theories.  

In 1969, New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison’s unsuccessful prosecution of Clay Shaw alleged CIA involvement, claiming a conspiracy to thwart Kennedy’s Cold War policies. Garrison’s 1988 book, On the Trail of the Assassins, reignited these debates, dismissing the Warren Commission’s conclusions and highlighting intricate connections among intelligence agencies, politicians, and Cuba-related interests.

Garrison’s book was famously the basis of Oliver Stone’s film JFK (1991) featuring Kevin Costner, though Stone added in his own twists. The film dramatised the conspiracy, challenging the magic bullet theory, and called for the release of official records.

Left: ‘On the Trail of the Assassins’ book cover. Centre: Jim Garrison. Right: Film poster of ‘JFK’ (1991)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons. Left: Public Domain. Right: Hoffa2 / CC BY-SA 4.0. Right: Warner Bros / Fair Use

Despite controversies and widespread debunking, the film was a box office success, winning two Oscars and prompting the 1992 JFK Records Act. This aimed to disclose all relevant remaining official records within 25 years. However some remained undisclosed until 2023, and a further 1% remain to be released, perpetuating interest and scepticism about the government’s role, and its slow revelation of classified records.

Who killed Kennedy?

60 years on from JFK’s assassination, definitive answers remain elusive. However, if the assassination was an elaborate conspiracy planned by the CIA, other government agencies, or even the Soviets, many factors would have had to line up on that fateful day. Not one witness saw Lee Harvey Oswald fire the shots – surely if he was being framed, someone would have managed to plant a ‘witness’ to this to help convict him?

Kennedy was known for greeting crowds. If he had indeed been a target, surely one shot at a public walkabout would have been easier than the complex mix of events in the assassination scenario. If there had been a cover-up, was this to cover-up CIA failures, rather than a deliberate plot to kill the president?

Whilst there are many theories, it remains the case that perhaps, someone as mighty as the US President, was in-fact just killed by a lone-gunman. It’s likely that we’ll never know the full story, but as long as classified documents remain undisclosed, the quest for the truth continues.

A young and popular president, by autumn 1963, ‘JFK‘ had been preparing for the 1964 presidential campaign. Earlier that day, the Kennedy’s had greeted crowds of well-wishers on arrival in Dallas before joining their motorcade to head to the Trade Mart where JFK was scheduled to speak.

As Kennedy’s car reached Dealey Plaza and passed the Texas School Book Depository, shots were fired, fatally hitting Kennedy and injuring Texas Governor John Connally. Kennedy’s body was later transported to Air Force One, where before flying to Washington D.C., Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was swiftly sworn in as President, with Jackie Kennedy at his side still wearing her pink Chanel suit stained with her husband’s blood.

2023 marks 60 years since the assassination, an event that continues to spark fascination and speculation due to the myriad of conspiracy theories that have emerged since. What prompted these, and why is there still such intrigue 60 years on, despite many government investigations?

Lyndon B. Johnson taking the oath of office aboard Air Force One at Love Field Airport, 2 hours and 8 minutes after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, in Dallas, Texas. Jackie Kennedy (right), still in her blood-soaked clothes, looks on.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Cecil W. Stoughton / Public Domain

Lee Harvey Oswald

Most witnesses to Kennedy’s assassination reported hearing three shots, with one sighting a gunman firing the third shot from the Texas School Book Depository’s sixth-floor corner window. 24 year-old ex-marine Lee Harvey Oswald would become America’s chief suspect.

Oswald was a recently hired Book Depository employee, and had left swiftly before police sealed the building. Police later found his abandoned rifle, and evidence of a ‘sniper’s nest’ made from book cartons, along with three spent bullet-shells.

After taking a taxi to his apartment to change clothes and grab a gun, Oswald left on foot. 45 minutes after JFK’s assassination, Oswald encountered, then fatally shot, police officer JD Tippit, before seeking refuge in a nearby cinema, slipping into a film already in progress. A witness alerted staff and police were called. After a brief struggle, Oswald was arrested. At Dallas police headquarters, another officer recognised Oswald’s name as the only Book Depository employee unaccounted for, which had made him a suspect in Kennedy’s assassination.

Lee Harvey Oswald Mug Shot, November 23, 1963

Image Credit: PictureLux / The Hollywood Archive / Alamy Stock Photo

The authorities firmly believed they had captured the assassin: a Depository employee who was an ex-marine with a sharpshooting record – with Marxist sympathies. However, whilst Oswald was held in custody, none of his police interviews were recorded or documented. Oswald later claimed to the media he was “just a patsy” – the fall guy. This sewed the seeds of doubt in the public’s minds.

Two days later, during a scheduled transfer to the county jail, Jack Ruby (a local nightclub owner), fatally shot Oswald on live television from point blank range. This act removed the chance for Oswald to be interrogated, leading to decades of conspiracy theories.

The Warren Commission

A week after Kennedy’s assassination, President Johnson launched an inquiry. 10 months later, The Warren Commission’s 888 page report concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald had assassinated Kennedy (and police officer Tippit), and had acted alone. Ballistics evidence helped confirm this conclusion. They also concluded that local nightclub owner Jack Ruby had acted alone when he killed Oswald 2 days later in an act of spontaneous revenge, finding no evidence that either man was part of any conspiracy.

According to the Warren Commission, Oswald fired three shots in 8.6 seconds: the first shot missed, but they claimed the second shot somehow struck Kennedy in the back, exited through his throat, then hit Governor Connally, breaking a rib, shattering his wrist, and ending up in his right thigh. This became known as the ‘magic bullet theory’, and had in part relied on the fact a bullet had been found on Connally’s hospital stretcher on his arrival at Parkland Memorial Hospital.

Members of the Warren Commission officially present their report on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy to President Lyndon Johnson. Cabinet Room, White House, Washington DC.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / White House photo by Cecil Stoughton / Public Domain

Increasing mistrust

Whilst the majority of the public seeming willing to accept The Warren Commission’s conclusions, over the next few years, many critics and various conspiracy theories emerged; soon over half of Americans believed there was a conspiracy or cover-up behind Kennedy’s assassination. Why?

The first conspiratorial bestsellers about Kennedy’s murder appeared in 1966, a time when public discontent with the Vietnam War was at its peak. A climate of distrust had been created by the government’s lies about Vietnam, popularising the concept of a ‘credibility gap’.

Mark Lane’s book Rush to Judgement (1966) questioned the Warren commission’s findings. For many, increasingly Oswald, the lone gunman, didn’t seem a big-enough answer to the assassination of the American President – and why had he claimed he was a ‘patsy’? Furthermore, Oswald’s own assassination also began to seem too convenient.

Sceptics also fixated on the single bullet, finding it difficult to believe that it could have caused as many injuries as it did, and to two separate men.

The Zapruder film

Ukrainian-born American clothing manufacturer Abraham Zapruder had used his cine-camera to film 26 seconds of Kennedy’s motorcade as it progressed through Dealey Plaza. Contained in his 486 frames of footage, specifically frame 313, he recorded the headshot that had killed the president. His film is regarded as the most complete footage of the assassination.

2 days after the assassination, Life magazine bought the rights to Zapruder’s footage, and stills from it were used in the Warren Commission’s investigation. However, it was only when the footage was broadcast on American network television in March 1975, that an array of theories about the existence and location of a potential second gunman emerged.

The footage shows a headshot knocked Kennedy backwards, suggesting the gunshot had come from the front, not from behind, opening up the possibility of a second gunman. Indeed, as the gunshots rang out, many bystanders had rushed up the grassy knoll to where Zapruder had been standing, believing the shots had come from there.

Left: Frame 150 from the Zapruder film. Kennedy’s limousine has just turned onto Elm Street, moments before the first shot, and the President is apparently waving. Right: Frame 371 showing Jacqueline Kennedy reaching out across the back of the presidential limousine as Secret Service agent Clint Hill climbs aboard.

Zapruder’s footage remains the cornerstone of many conspiracy theories, and in 1976, (after Vietnam and Watergate had shaken Americans’ faith in government) led to the commissioning of the House Select Committee on Assassinations. In 1979, its investigation claimed it had found no evidence of CIA, Soviet or Cuban involvement, but concluded (using questionable acoustical analysis) that although Oswald had shot JFK, there was a high ‘probability’ of a second gunman and thus a conspiracy.

Despite this bombshell, the Committee failed to name any accomplices and sealed many of its findings for 50 years, inevitably prompting further speculation and conspiracy theories, and adding to public cynicism over the Warren Commission report. If the CIA and the FBI had lied to the Commission, some thought they – or even the media – clearly had something to hide.

Conspiracy theories

Kennedy’s assassination remains shrouded in intrigue, spawning numerous conspiracy theories that have captivated the public imagination for decades.

Among the most famous theories is the CIA Conspiracy, suggesting the involvement of rogue elements within the CIA seeking retribution for Kennedy’s policies, aggravated by his knowledge of the agency’s attempts to eliminate Fidel Castro. 

Another prominent theory, the Mafia Connection, posits organised crime’s involvement due to displeasure over Attorney General Robert Kennedy’s crackdown on the mob and the closure of mafia-run casinos following the failed Cuba policy. Additionally, the Grassy Knoll Theory proposes a second shooter on the grassy knoll, challenging the lone gunman narrative, based on eyewitness accounts and forensic anomalies at the crime scene.

These enduring theories, among others, continue to fuel debates and investigations, and have been the basis for many famous books and films about the assassination, including Oliver Stone’s JFK, which called for the release of official records, leading to the 1992 JFK Records Act, which aimed to disclose all relevant remaining official records within 25 years, by October 2017.

Release of new files and information

On 26 October 2017, thousands of previously classified documents pertaining to the assassination were released by America’s National Archives as part of a set of documents scheduled for public disclosure under the terms of the JFK Records Act. These offered insights into various aspects of the investigation, including FBI and CIA reports, witness testimonies amongst other records.

Nevertheless, former President Trump and President Biden allowed postponements on the advice of the FBI, CIA, and other national security agencies. However, in June 2023, almost 60 years after JFK’s assassination, America’s National Archives concluded their review of the JFK assassination documents. 99% of the documents have now been made public. Whilst this is clear progress, inevitably queries over the remaining 1% continue.

The newly released documents highlighted the Warren Commission’s failure to provide a clear motive for Oswald, as they lacked crucial intelligence context withheld from them. This revealed extensive surveillance on Oswald by American intelligence agencies, including the CIA’s monitoring of his activities and threats made in Mexico City – information never shared with the Commission. It’s likely Oswald’s pro-Castro connections were possibly downplayed to avoid public outrage and potential military conflict with Cuba during the Cold War.

President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy arrive at Love Field, Dallas, Texas. 22 November 1962

60 years on, new files and information are still being revealed. Former Secret Service agent Paul Landis, in his 2023 memoir The Final Witness, disclosed finding a bullet in the back of JFK’s limousine, which he later placed on Kennedy’s stretcher at the hospital. Landis speculated that Kennedy and Connally Jr’s stretchers might have collided, shifting the bullet between them, challenging the single-bullet theory of the Warren Commission.

However, Landis’ account contrasts with earlier statements he made post-assassination and lacks corroboration from other witnesses like Clint Hill (the agent who famously jumped onto the back of the Kennedy’s car to protect the president), and hospital accounts, raising doubts about its accuracy.

It’s likely that we’ll never know the full story, but until all the related documents are declassified, conspiracy theories continue to abound. 

Tragically, Lawrence’s promising career was cut short when he was killed in a plane crash while an instructor, before he got the opportunity to fly in space. Despite his early death, Lawrence’s contributions to space science and his achievements paved the way for future generations of diverse astronauts, leaving a lasting impact on the history of space exploration.

How did Robert Lawrence become an astronaut?

Early life

Robert Lawrence was born on 2 October 1935 in Chicago, Illinois. A chess enthusiast and model airplane builder as a child, Lawrence graduated in the top 10% from Englewood High School, and in 1956, graduated from Bradley University with a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry aged 20.

During his time at Bradley, Lawrence had distinguished himself as Cadet Commander in the Air Force Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) and received the commission of Second Lieutenant in the Air Force Reserve Program.

Maj. Lawrence standing next to an F-104 Starfighter

Image Credit: NASA / U.S. Air Force / Public Domain

US Air Force career

Lawrence was designated as a US Air Force officer and fighter pilot aged 21, after completing flight training at Malden Air Force Base in Missouri. A year later he married Barbara Cress (with whom he later had a son, Tracey), and by the time he was 25, had completed an assignment as an instructor pilot in the T-33 training aircraft for the German Air Force.

While working on a PhD in physical chemistry from Ohio State University (which he earned in 1965, aged 25), Lawrence also studied at the Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio.

Bradley became a senior US Air Force pilot, having accumulated over 2,500 flying hours, of which 2,000 were in jets. His experience led him to fly many tests in the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter to help NASA investigate the gliding flight of various unpowered spacecraft returning to Earth from orbit, including the X-15 rocket-plane. The flight manoeuvre data collected by Lawrence was later said by NASA to have contributed greatly to the development of the Space Shuttle.

Astronaut selection

In June 1967, Lawrence successfully completed the US Air Force Test Pilot School (Class 66B) at Edwards Air Force Base in California, and on 30 June 1967, was immediately selected and assigned by the US Air Force as a member of the third group of aerospace research pilots for their Manned Orbiting Laboratory Program (MOL). Lawrence thus became the first African-American to be selected as an astronaut for a manned space program by any national space program – and the only selected MOL astronaut with a doctorate.

USAF Maj. Robert H. Lawrence (second from left) with his fellow MOL Group 3 astronauts Lt. Col. Robert T. Herres, Maj. Donald H. Peterson and Maj. James A. Abrahamson.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / U.S. Air Force / Public Domain

Regarding the significance of his selection, Lawrence modestly said, “This is nothing dramatic. It’s just a normal progression. I’ve been very fortunate”.

Lawrence’s astronaut selection was highly significant, coming just 3 years after the 1964 US Civil Rights Act and at a time when black people still faced major racial discrimination in America – and a year before the assassination of Martin Luther King. His fellow astronaut, Donald H. Peterson, even had to publicly state that he was not reluctant to work with a black man.

Work on the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) project

NASA astronauts had already made 10 orbital flights aboard Gemini spacecraft, and had just begun the Apollo programme and the race to the moon, yet amidst the Space Race both the Soviet Union and USA were also developing manned space systems for military purposes.

Authorised in August 1965, the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) was a joint project between the US Air Force and the National Reconnaissance Office which aimed to obtain high-resolution photographic imagery of America’s Cold War adversaries. It envisioned a series of mini-space stations in low polar Earth orbit, occupied by 2-man crews for 30 days at a time, launching and returning to Earth aboard modified Gemini capsules, practicing visual reconnaissance and communications intercepts and other national security tasks.

The MOL project would eventually lead to today’s International Space Station.

Tragic death

As part of his training, Lawrence had practiced steep-descent landing techniques that would become a critical part of Space Shuttle landing techniques. Known as a ‘flare’, the risky high-speed manoeuvre involved pulling the aircraft’s nose up to generate a short burst of extra lift (which slowed the descent) by sacrificing a lot of forward speed (reducing touchdown speed) just prior to touchdown. The aerodynamics were still being mapped out, and timing was crucial – too soon, and the aircraft began falling again, too fast was too late.

Lawrence had mastered this piloting task and made a number of test flights in a special two-seat F-104 Starfighter supersonic jet. On 8 December 1967, he served as an instructor for another pilot practicing the ‘flare’ manoeuvre for himself at Edwards Air Force Base, California. However, the other pilot, Major Harvey Royer, flared too late, causing the plane to strike the ground hard. The airplane then caught fire and rolled, skidding on the runway for around 610 metres.

Both men ejected – Major Royer ejected upward and sustained only major injuries, however the back seat, which had a moment’s timing delays to avoid hitting the front seat, did not eject in time. By the time it did eject, the aircraft had rolled sideways, and the ejector seat ejected sideways into the ground, killing Lawrence instantly and dragging him 23 metres from the wreck.

Lawrence was aged 32, and left behind his wife and 8 year old son.

What Lawrence would have gone on to do had he lived

During his brief career, Lawrence had earned the Air Force Commendation Medal, the Outstanding Unit Citation. After the Nixon Administration cancelled the MOL program in June 1969, seven of the younger (under 35) MOL astronauts transferred to NASA and became the NASA Astronaut Group 7. Had Lawrence lived, and since he was in that age range, it is virtually certain he also would have transferred.

All of the astronauts in that group later flew on the Space Shuttle in the 1980’s – with his promising career and brilliant academic prowess, it’s likely Lawrence would have piloted one of the early Space Shuttle missions.

Main: Robert H Lawrence Jr name on the Space Mirror Memorial. Inset: Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr. – USAF Astronaut

Image Credit: Main: Wikimedia Commons / NASA / Kim Shiflett / Public Domain. Inset: Wikimedia Commons / U.S. Air Force / Public Domain

Recognition and memorials

Lawrence was the first African-American astronaut, but due to his untimely death and the relative secrecy surrounding the MOL program, Lawrence’s name remained largely unknown. It wasn’t until 30 years later that NASA fully recognised his achievements.

The Astronauts Memorial Foundation’s Space Mirror at Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida, is dedicated to American astronauts who lost their lives during or while preparing for a space mission. At the time the memorial was officially dedicated in 1991, the US Air Force defined an astronaut as one who had flown in space (at least 50 miles above the Earth) and completed astronaut training. Thus they did not officially recognise Lawrence as an astronaut at the time of his death, and his name was omitted from the memorial. Many people including Lawrence’s family, community members, and historians, felt this decision was based on racism.

In the 1990’s, concerted efforts to overcome bureaucratic barriers over the definition of an astronaut, resulted in Lawrence finally receiving proper recognition. In September 1997, the crew of the Space Shuttle Atlantis carried Lawrence’s MOL mission patch into orbit during the STS-86 mission, in tribute to his outstanding accomplishments as an American space pioneer. On 8 December 1997, the 30^th anniversary of his death, Lawrence’s name was eventually inscribed on the Astronauts Memorial Foundation’s Space Mirror. (His is the 17th name).

On the 50^th anniversary of Lawrence’s death, NASA leaders honoured him in a large ceremony recognising his ground-breaking accomplishments, and the 13th Northrop Grumman Cygnus spacecraft, launched on 15 February 2020, was named the S.S. Robert H. Lawrence in his honour. That year, NASA also included Lawrence in a group of 27 pioneering African-American, Hispanic, and Native American astronauts that were commemorated by naming asteroids after them. Lawrence’s asteroid, Robertlawrence 92892, is located in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.

His grandfather, John Jacob Astor, emigrated to the United States from Germany, aged just 21, with little more than a suitcase of musical instruments. However, he was a shrewd investor who ventured into various industries, including fur trading and real estate. Within 4 decades, he became the country’s first multi-millionaire.

Astor IV himself became a prominent figure in business and high society, by further building upon his family’s wealth and financial empire through savvy investments in New York City’s booming real estate market. He developed and owned prestigious properties, including the iconic hotels the Waldorf-Astoria and the St. Regis, as well as several other prominent buildings.

However, Astor IV is most famously remembered for his tragic demise aboard the Titanic, an ill-fated journey he had embarked upon in order to avoid the publicity of a family scandal. At the time of boarding he was aged 47 and as head of the Astor family, had a personal fortune worth approximately $80 million (equivalent to over $200 billion in today’s money). He was the wealthiest passenger aboard the Titanic.

Birth and family legacy

Born on 13 July 1864, in New York, John Jacob Astor IV hailed from one of the most affluent families in the world.The Astor family’s prestigious lineage dates back to the early 1700s when his great-grandfather, John Jacob Astor, arrived in America from a small village in Germany.

John Jacob Astor IV’s mother was Caroline Schermerhorn Astor, who had married William Backhouse Astor Jr. (the son of John Jacob Astor III and the grandson of the original John Jacob Astor).

John Jacob Astor built his family’s wealth as a successful exporter for a Canadian fur company, amassing a fortune of over $250,000 by the late 1790s. Astor later shifted his focus to New York City real estate, capitalising on the city’s expansion by strategically selling developed land along the routes of essential services. He amassed great wealth through real estate ventures, including acquiring land in Manhattan, which later became Times Square.

A privileged life

John Jacob Astor IV was raised in a world of opulence and privilege. His childhood was marked by luxurious living, surrounded by the finest amenities and cultural opportunities.

His father, William Backhouse Astor Jr., in contrast to his business-minded father, did not share his father’s drive for aggressively expanding the family fortune. Instead, he found joy in a life of luxury and leisure. He spent much of his time aboard the Ambassadress, the world’s largest private yacht at that time.

Despite his privileged upbringing, Astor IV received a well-rounded education, attending prestigious institutions such as St. Paul’s School in Concord, New Hampshire, and Harvard University.

However Astor IV did not complete his studies, and spent several years abroad before returning to New York to join the family real estate business.

Real estate success and iconic hotels

After his father died in 1892, John Jacob Astor IV utilised his inherited wealth by investing heavily in real estate projects. In 1897, he constructed the Astoria Hotel adjacent to the Waldorf Hotel, built by his cousin William Waldorf Astor. The combined establishments became renowned as the Waldorf-Astoria. Astor’s real estate interests extended to other hotels as well, including the Hotel St. Regis (1905) and the Knickerbocker (1906).

Marriages and private scandal

John Jacob Astor IV married Ava Shippen in 1891, and together they had a son named Vincent and a daughter named Ava. However, their marriage faced challenges, and they eventually divorced in 1909. Astor’s second marriage in 1911 to Madeleine Force garnered significant attention due to their substantial age difference. At the time of their marriage, Madeleine was only 18 years old, while Astor was 47.

The couple’s union caused a scandal due to the rarity of divorce and remarriage during that time, and drew public criticism, prompting them to seek refuge abroad. They travelled extensively, spending time in Europe and Egypt, before deciding to return to the United States aboard the luxurious RMS Titanic.

Washington Times story about Madeleine Force, the future bride of John Jacob Astor IV in 1911.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

A fatal decision

The couple boarded the ship at Cherbourg, on 10 April 1912, accompanied by their respective staff members and Madeleine’s nursemaid due to her pregnancy.

Just 2 days later the Titanic struck an iceberg. Astor was one of the first to realise the boat was sinking. He woke his wife, advised her to dress warmly, adorned her with jewellery, and placed her in a lifeboat. His wife was reluctant to leave his side, but Astor assured her that she would be safe and that they would reunite in the morning.

John Jacob Astor IV, wearing a distinguished dinner suit and clutching his personalised pocket watch, was last sighted on the deck of the Titanic. His body was recovered by the cable ship Mackay-Bennett on 22 April, identified by the initials sewn into his jacket, and the watch which was engraved with the initials J.J.A. He was buried at Trinity Cemetery, New York.

A young newspaper seller holds a banner declaring TITANIC DISASTER GREAT LOSS OF LIFE. Cockspur Street, London, UK, 1912.

Image Credit: Shawshots / Alamy Stock Photo

A controversial inheritance

If Astor had survived and reached the United States, he intended to make his unborn child with Madeleine the heir to his fortune. However, the majority of his wealth passed on to his first son, Vincent Astor, who dropped out of University and dedicated the rest of his life to philanthropy.

The Vincent Astor Foundation was established in New York City in 1948 for the purpose of “alleviating human misery” and Astor donated a significant portion of his fortune to educational institutions, healthcare initiatives, and the arts. He played a pivotal role in the development and funding of notable institutions such as the New York Public Library, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Bronx Zoo.

Though best remembered for his boxing and anti-war activism, Ali was also a talented poet who incorporated his artistic endeavours into his athletic pursuits, and later campaigned for rights for those suffering from Parkinson’s disease. 

Here are 10 facts about Muhammad Ali. 

1. He was named after anti-slavery activist Cassius Marcellus Clay

Muhammad Ali was born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr on 17 January 1942 in Louisville, Kentucky. He and his father were named after a white farmer and abolitionist, Cassius Marcellus Clay, who emancipated 40 people previously enslaved by his father.

As a fighter, Clay became a member of the Nation of Islam alongside Malcolm X and had his name changed to Muhammad Ali by his mentor Elijah Muhammad on 6 March 1964.

2. He began fighting after his bike was stolen

Cassius Clay and his trainer Joe E. Martin. 31 January 1960.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

When his bike was stolen, Clay went to the police. The officer was a boxing trainer and suggested the 12-year-old learned to fight, so he joined the gym. 6 weeks later, Clay won his first boxing match.

By 22, Ali was the world heavyweight champion, defeating the reigning champion Sonny Liston. It was in this fight that Clay famously promised to “float like a butterfly and sting like a bee”. He would soon become internationally renowned for his fast footwork and powerful punches.

3. He won an Olympic gold medal in 1960

In 1960, 18-year-old Clay travelled to Rome to represent the US in the boxing ring. He defeated all his opponents and won a gold medal. Upon his return to the United States, he was refused service at a diner in his home state while wearing his medal because of his race. He later told reporters that he threw the medal off a bridge into the Ohio River.

4. He refused to fight in the Vietnam War

In 1967, Ali refused to join the US Military and fight in the Vietnam War, citing religious reasons. He was arrested and stripped of his title. Further, the New York State Athletic Commission suspended his boxing license, and he was convicted of draft evasion, sentenced to prison and fined. During his suspension from boxing, Ali took up acting in New York for a brief time and performed in the title role of Buck White. 

Preacher Elijah Muhammad addresses followers including Muhammad Ali, 1964.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

He appealed his conviction, and in 1970, the New York State Supreme Court ordered his boxing license to be reinstated. The US Supreme Court would go on to overturn the entirety of Ali’s conviction in 1971.

5. He was a poet

Muhammad Ali was known to compose verses with which he would taunt his opponents in the boxing ring. He preferred iambic pentameter. In 1963, he recorded a spoken word album called I Am the Greatest. His talk in the ring earned him the nickname the ‘Louisville Lip’.

6. Ali won 56 of the 61 professional fights of his career

Throughout his career, Ali defeated many fighters like Sonny Liston, George Foreman, Jerry Quarry and Joe Frazier. With each victory, Ali gained popularity and further solidified his reputation as heavyweight champion. Across his 56 victories, he delivered 37 knockouts.

7. He experienced his first loss as a pro in the ‘Fight of the Century’

Ali vs. Frazier, promotional photo.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

After his license was reinstated, Ali worked his way back to the heavyweight championship. On 8 March 1971, he entered the ring against the undefeated Joe Frazier. Frazier would defend his championship title, beating Ali in the final round.

This night was dubbed the ‘Fight of the Century’ and landed Ali his first defeat as a professional boxer. He would go 10 more fights before losing again, and in 6 months’ time, he even defeated Frazier in a non-title match.

8. He fought in the ‘Rumble in the Jungle’ against George Foreman

In 1974, Ali went toe to toe with undefeated champion George Foreman in Kinshasa, Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Zaire’s president at the time wanted positive publicity for the country and offered each of the fighters $5 million to fight in Africa. To ensure the fight would be viewed by an American audience, it took place at 4:00 am.

Ali won in 8 rounds and regained his heavyweight title after losing it 7 years prior. He employed a new strategy against Foreman, leaning on the ropes to absorb the blows from Foreman until he was tired out.

9. He was the first boxer to win the world heavyweight title 3 times

Ali won the heavyweight title 3 times in his career. First, he beat Sonny Liston in 1964. Upon his return to boxing, he defeated George Foreman in 1974. For the third chance at the title, Ali defeated Leon Spinks in 1978 after losing his title to him just 7 months earlier. This victory meant he was the first boxer in history to win the title 3 times.

10. He was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease at age 42

President George W. Bush Embraces Muhammad Ali, 2005 Recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Ali retired from boxing in 1979, to briefly return in 1980. He would retire for good in 1981 at age 39. At age 42, he was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease after showing signs of slurred speech and slowness. Nonetheless, he still made public appearances and travelled around the world for humanitarian and charitable causes.

In 2005, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He died of septic shock as the result of a respiratory illness in 2016.

However, the psychological devastation of the war was immeasurable. By late 1967, around half a million US troops were in Vietnam, and drug use, post-traumatic stress disorder, mutinies and attacks by soldiers against commissioned and noncommissioned officers were at an all-time high among troops. Between 1966 and 1973, more than 503,000 US military personal deserted and a significant anti-war campaign took hold within the US.

Bombarded by horrific images of war, citizens at home made their views known via protests and popular culture. Some of the most enduring anti-war sentiment was distilled through protest songs which were sung and broadcasted far and wide. Today, they are some of the most poignant reminders of the tumult and horrors of the conflict.

Here are 10 of the most significant anti-Vietnam War protest songs of the age.

Eve of Destruction by P.F. Sloan (for Barry McGuire) (1965)

Eve of Destruction was actually written by 19-year-old P.F. Sloan, a staff songwriter at Barry McGuire’s label. McGuire recorded it in one take in spring 1965. Tackling themes such as racism, hypocrisy and injustice and taking aim at the Vietnam War with lyrics such as ‘You’re old enough to kill, but not for votin’, You don’t believe in war, but what’s that gun you’re totin”, the song quickly became number one in the US, and reached the top ten in many other countries. However, many radio stations refused to play it.

We’ve Gotta Get Out of this Place by The Animals (1965)

This song was most popular with US forces stationed in South Vietnam, and was frequently played by radio DJs. Surveys in the time since have shown that it was the song they claimed to most identify with during the conflict, and has since been inducted onto the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame’s 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll list.

Bring ‘em Home by Pete Seeger (1966)

Washington, D.C. Pete Seeger, noted folk singer entertaining at the opening of the Washington labor canteen, sponsored by the United Federal Labor Canteen, sponsored by the Federal Workers of American, Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).

Image Credit: ttp://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8d41983 / CC / Wikimedia Commons

Pete Seeger was one of the most famous folk music artists of the 20th century. His song Bring ’em Home was often sung during anti-Vietnam War protests. Cleverly, he asserts that he wishes to bring the soldiers home because of his love of the country, since many who were in favour of the war accused anti-war activists of being anti-American. Later, Seeger adapted the song to protest US wars in the Middle East.

Alice’s Restaurant Massacree by Arlo Guthrie (1967)

Arlo Guthrie’s Alice’s Restaurant Massacree is an epic 18 minutes in length and mainly consists of a spoken ‘talking blues’ monologue. It is a deadpan protest against the Vietnam War in the form of a comically hyperbolic yet mainly factual account from Guthrie’s own life which refers to an incident where he was convicted of illegally dumping rubbish, which in turn endangers his suitability for the military draft. Today, it is tradition for certain radio stations to play the song on Thanksgiving.

Backlash Blues by Nina Simone (1967)

Nina Simone adapted a civil rights poem by Langston Hughes into a protest song against the Vietnam War. The name ‘Mr. Backlash’ often referred to slave owners because of their tendency to whip enslaved people’s backs, and Simone uses the metaphor in this instance to refer to the American government. Lyrics such as ‘Raise my taxes/Freeze my wages/Send my son to Vietnam’ protested the war, while the song was also a rallying cry in favour of black emancipation and civil rights.

I Feel Like I’m Fixing to Die Rag by Country Joe MacDonald (1967)

Country Joe McDonald performing at Kralingen Music Festival, 1970.

Image Credit: Noord-Hollands Archief / CC / Wikimedia Commons

One of the most memorable moments of the Woodstock Music and Art Fair of 1969 was Country Joe MacDonald’s solo performance of I Feel Like I’m Fixing to Die Rag, a clearly anti-Vietnam War song. Featuring lyrics such as ‘and it’s one, two, three what are we fighting for? Don’t ask me I don’t give a damn, next stop is Vietnam’, the song was a counter-cultural hit.

Fortunate Son by Creedence Clearwater Revival (1969)

One of the most famous protest songs of the Vietnam War, Fortunate Son is less explicit in its criticism of the war in particular, instead angling for the unfairness of class with regards to war. Using lyrics such as ‘It ain’t me, it ain’t me, I ain’t no fortunate one, no’, the song states that rich men make war while poor men have to fight them.

Give Peace a Chance by Plastic Ono Band (1969)

In 1969, the anti-Vietnam war movement was gaining traction. John Lennon and Yoko Ono were staging a ‘Bed-in’ in their honeymoon suite in Montreal, and it was from his bed that Lennon along with some friends recorded this anti-war anthem on an acoustic guitar, some microphones and a four-track tape recorder. Just a few months after it was recorded, musician Pete Seeger led a crowd of half a million demonstrators through Washington D.C. on Vietnam Moratorium Day, who sang the song and interspersed it with phrases such as ‘Are you listening, Nixon?’ and ‘Are you listening, Agnew?’

War by Edwin Starr (1970)

The rallying slogan ‘War, what is it good for? Absolutely nothing’ became an oft-cried slogan throughout the Vietnam War, and during subsequent conflicts around the world. Though the song was originally recorded by the Temptations in 1969, it was feared that the counterculture soul song might not resonate with fans of the otherwise sweet vocal group, meaning Edwin Starr’s became the definitive version, climbing to number one in the charts in 1970.

Orange Crush by REM (1988)

Though not strictly sung during the Vietnam War itself, the song Orange Crush is important for highlighting an element of the long-term physical damage that the war waged. It references the government’s use of the herbicide known as Agent Orange that removed trees and foliage that the Viet Cong otherwise used to their advantage during the war. Many diseases were later found to be associated with the herbicide, including heart disease, Parkinson’s, diabetes, prostate and lung cancer.

What followed was a tragic event that led to significant changes in the design and safety protocols of the Apollo spacecraft, which went on to help facilitate the success of the Apollo program’s push to land men on the Moon.

Fatal rehearsal

With the test underway, the crew abruptly reported to Ground Control that a fire had broken out inside the capsule. The fire quickly spread due to the high-pressure pure-oxygen atmosphere and flammable materials used in the interior structure of the capsule. Tragically, the design of the capsule access hatch proved to be cumbersome, preventing a rapid escape for the astronauts. As the fire gutted the cramped interior of the capsule, the astronauts were overcome by the noxious fumes, leading to their untimely deaths.

Apollo 1 crewmen enter their spacecraft in the altitude chamber at Kennedy Space Center, 18 October, 1966. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: NASA, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

It was several hours before the capsule could be opened and the bodies recovered. Post mortem examinations showed that the crew had probably died of cardiac arrest brought on by breathing massive concentrations of carbon monoxide.

America had suffered its first fatalities of the space programme, tragically without them having left Earth.

Deadly oversights

The subsequent investigation into the Apollo 1 space disaster was highly critical of the spacecraft’s design and the inadequate safety procedures in place at the time. Although the exact cause of the fire could not be definitively determined, it was believed to be most likely due to an electrical fault.

The investigation identified six contributing factors to the disaster, including a sealed cabin pressurised with an oxygen atmosphere, the presence of combustible materials throughout the cabin, vulnerable wiring carrying spacecraft power, vulnerable plumbing carrying a combustible and corrosive coolant, inadequate provisions for the crew to escape, and inadequate provisions for rescue or medical assistance.

Legacy

As a result of the investigation, changes were made to the design and safety protocols of the Apollo spacecraft to prevent similar accidents in the future. The crew of Apollo 1, along with other astronauts and cosmonauts, are honoured on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center.

Launch Complex 34, where the test took place, was used only once more after the Apollo 1 disaster before being dismantled, leaving only the concrete launch pedestal that bears two plaques in memory of the Apollo 1 crew.