As the Vikings did not have a written history, it’s not fully understood why the Vikings ventured from Scandinavia so frequently since the end of the 8th century, but it’s clear that no single event caused the Viking Age. There are many multifaceted and intertwined theories and factors that have been recognised by historians as having converged and contributed to create the environment that fuelled the Viking expansion, including economic pressures, political fragmentation, technological advancements, social structures, and cultural influences.

Here we look at the key elements that contributed to the onset of this transformative era.

1. Fractious kingdoms

The political landscape of Scandinavia was marked by fragmented and often fractious kingdoms. Tribal communities, each with its own chieftains, vied for power and resources, creating an environment ripe for both internal conflicts and external exploration. The lack of a unified political structure facilitated individual leaders’ ambitions to seek fortune beyond their borders.

Indeed according to Icelandic Ynglinga saga (based on earlier writings of Norwegian skalds), after Harald Fairhair brought Norway under his control, many minor chieftains decided to leave rather than live under his rule, preferring to go raiding or settle elsewhere.

2. Longships

Longships were a technological innovation that played a pivotal role in the Viking Age. Dating back to the early Iron Age, these long streamlined canoes and boats were powered by oars, which worked well in coastal waters. Various forms of ship were developed within the period, their use and power determined by the number of oars.

Viking boat on a lake, Jelling Stones

Image Credit: robertharding / Alamy Stock Photo

Longships were characterised by their shallow draft, which enabled them to withstand travel in open rough seas, navigate in shallow inland rivers into the interior of other countries, as well as make beach landings – crucial for surprise raiding tactics. Smaller longships were also light enough to transport over land, enabling Viking crews to move them between waterways with ease. 

Their thin, streamlined hull, symmetrical at the bow and stern, allowed for swift changes in direction, while advancements like keels and detachable rudders improved stability and led to the widening of the hull. This also allowed for the addition of a sail, enabling the longships to reach unprecedented speeds of up to 15 knots. A longship could leave Norway and reach the eastern coast of England in under a week.

The clinker building method of overlapping planks made longships faster to build and lighter, providing Vikings with a strategic edge in both trade and raiding activities.

3. Lack of women

One intriguing factor that might have contributed to Viking expansion was a scarcity of women in Scandinavia. This scarcity, whether real or perceived, is suggested by historical records and sagas. The shortage of potential brides could have fuelled the incentive for young Viking men to seek partners beyond their home shores, leading to migrations and the establishment of new settlements.

Furthermore, the treasures brought home from raids abroad would have been enough for young men to afford to pay a bride price (paid by a man to a woman’s family for her hand in marriage), increasing their chance of marriage – a further incentive to join raids.

4. Primogeniture

Inheritance laws played a significant role in shaping Viking society. The Vikings practiced primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited the bulk of the family’s wealth and land. Without wealth or land to farm, this left younger sons with limited prospects. Many of these younger sons sought wealth, fortune and status elsewhere, either through trade or by joining expeditions, contributing to the outward expansion of Viking activities.

5. Climate and weather

The climatic conditions during the Viking Age may have played a role in triggering migrations. A period known as the Medieval Warm Period (c. 950-1250 AD) created more favourable conditions for agriculture in western Europe, including Scandinavia, potentially supporting a growing population. Simultaneously, combined with their shipbuilding prowess, the warming climate could have opened up new routes to the Vikings for navigation, encouraging exploration and expansion, particularly in the now ice-free seas of the north Atlantic.

6. Political strife

In 782 AD, Emperor Charlemagne crushed a Saxon rebellion near the Elbe River. Afterwards he ordered 4,500 prisoners to be baptised in the river – drowning them as a lesson to other potential rebellions. Forced conversions were common under Charlemagne’s rule, but this event, ‘The Massacre of Verden’ had a royal connection. The Saxon leader, Widukind, was brother-in-law to the Danish king, and news of the massacre reached the Danish court, fuelling Danish resentment.

Danish raids on Frisian coasts (modern-day Netherlands) immediately intensified, including an assault on the trade port of Dorestad. The subsequent attack on Lindisfarne monastery a decade later may have been connected to the Verden massacre, suggesting political strife as a potential cause preceding the Viking Age.

7. Relatively easy targets

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there had been many small, unruly kingdoms across Europe, which often couldn’t maintain the armies they needed to provide security. This left a power vacuum which, along with their battlefield skills and superior boats, made it relatively easy for the Vikings to exploit.

Approximately 300 hundred years later, England was divided into numerous Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms such as Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex. Settlements and wealth often concentrated on the coastline and rivers, as it was much faster to trade by boat than crossing over forested land. A lot of wealthy places, like coastline monasteries and other Church properties, were dangerously exposed.

Even in warfare, Christian fighters would almost never have attacked such sites, and subsequently Church properties were unprotected, despite usually holding vast amounts of wealth. However, as the Vikings weren’t Christians, they had no problem with attacking them, viewing Church property as an easy target to amass wealth quickly. The infamous Lindisfarne raid in 793 AD in northeastern England marked the beginning of such attacks, unsettling the European religious world.

Later, the Vikings took advantage of internal conflicts in Europe to extend their activity further inland, with some Frankish rulers (modern-day France and Germany) even paying them to avoid attacking their subjects.

8. Trade and economic incentives

Vikings were also skilled traders. Following the collapse of Roman-era trade routes, the desire for valuable commodities such as silver, gold, and exotic goods had driven the Vikings to establish trade routes, ranging from the British Isles to the Mediterranean and even to the Silk Road. Trading activities contributed significantly to the prosperity of Viking communities.

Archaeological discoveries such as whetstones in settlements such as Lade (an important waterway on a peninsula bordering the Trondheimsfjord) in northern Norway, suggest early trade links between remote Scandinavian regions and more urbanised southern Baltic regions as early as the start of the 8th century. If trade had also indirectly been established between Lade and the English Channel at this time, contact from that trade may have inspired the Vikings to shift focus from trade to more lucrative raiding.

As Europe increasingly became Christian, Christian traders refused to trade with Vikings, potentially prompting them to intensify raids to compensate for lost income or to assert their power. Some Viking traders may have adopted Christianity to secure better deals, but by the end of the Viking Age, most had fully embraced Christianity.

9. Linguistic and cultural influences

The interconnectedness of languages and cultures in medieval Scandinavia also played a role in Viking expansion. Shared linguistic roots and cultural ties facilitated communication and collaboration among the various Norse communities. This interconnectedness allowed for the exchange of ideas, technologies, and exploration strategies.

10. Desire for adventure and exploration

In addition to economic motivations, the Vikings were driven by a spirit of adventure and exploration. The allure of the unknown, desire for fame, and the challenge of navigating uncharted waters motivated many to undertake daring journeys. The saga literature, while often mythologised, reflects this spirit of exploration that defined the Viking Age.

Raiding, far from being solely about violence and accumulating wealth, also functioned as a means of social capital – proving a platform for individual Vikings to distinguish themselves and earn recognition for their skills, reliability, and courage, thereby building reputations among their peers and superiors.

11. Religion

The religious landscape of the time, centred around the Norse pantheon, influenced Viking attitudes and actions. Norse paganism emphasised the role of the Norns – three wise women spinners who determined each person’s fate. This belief, tied to the concept of a predetermined lifespan, influenced Viking perspectives on death.

Death in battle was considered honourable, and the assurance of an afterlife in Valhalla, where warriors were rewarded, fostered a warrior culture. The prospect of glory in battle and a distinguished place in the afterlife motivated many Vikings to participate in raiding and warfare.

12. Economic boom and population pressure

The economic boom triggered by early Viking raids and trading might have played a role in the population growth of Scandinavia. Despite its large landmass, the region’s inhospitable conditions led to a continuous struggle for resources like arable land. As prosperity increased, so did the population, intensifying the need for alternative solutions.

Consequently, the Vikings, seeking new opportunities and wealth, engaged in an increasing frequency and intensity of expeditions that eventually evolved into extensive trade networks.

Here we challenge 10 of some of the most common misconceptions about the Vikings.

1. They wore horned helmets

Contrary to popular belief, Vikings did not wear horned helmets. The horned helmet was a 19th century invention, popularised in German composer Richard Wagner’s ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen’ opera cycle – in the 1870s. The costume designer basically thought that horned and winged helmets looked cool, and had the Viking roles wear them, leading to one of the biggest myths in history. 

Archaeological evidence on Viking helmets is scarce, but there has never been a Viking helmet uncovered with horns on it. Depictions of Vikings from the period show them to be wearing simple iron or leather helmets. 

Horned helmets appeared in different cultures in the Bronze Age, but not in the Viking age, and would have been completely impractical in battle.

2. It began at Lindisfarne

The Viking Age, beginning in the late 8th century, saw migrations from Scandinavia (countries we now call Denmark, Sweden and Norway). It’s not fully understood why the Vikings ventured from Scandinavia so frequently, but factors may have included overpopulation, a lack of women to marry, and the allure of rumours of the wealth of Christian kingdoms. Scandinavia’s inhospitable conditions fuelled a constant struggle for resources, further prompting Vikings to engage in raids and expeditions.

The Anglo Saxon Chronicle, initiated in the late 9th century, details the Viking invasions. Although one year stands out as the pivotal year marking the start of the Viking Age: 793, marked by the Viking attack on Lindisfarne – the Holy seat of the Kingdom of Northumbria in northeast England – this wasn’t the first Viking raid on the British Isles, or indeed Europe (that had taken place in 787).

The Lindisfarne attack was seen as so significant as pagan invaders had desecrated the Northumbrian seat of Christianity. The Chronicle’s accounts of the event are likely to be biased as they were written by those being invaded, and could have served as propaganda against the Vikings. Nevertheless, shockwaves from this event reverberated across Europe, reaching the court of the Emperor Charlemagne.

Viking raids on England escalated after Lindisfarne, and became more organised by the second half of the 9th century. But in reality, Scandinavian trade and exploration had occurred earlier than this date. The first recorded Viking raid on England was in Portland, Wessex, in 789. It’s very likely that there were

3. Ragnar Lothbrok was a real person

Ragnar Lothbrok  is the legendary lead character in the HBO series Vikings and a figure in the Viking Sagas.

However, much of what is thought to be known about Lothbrok is shrouded in ambiguity. Information about Lothbrok primarily comes from Icelandic Viking Sagas, yet these were written in the 13th century, two centuries after the end of the Viking Age, leading to debates and doubts over their historical accuracy. Furthermore, the most famous sagas were written in Iceland – far away from where much Viking activity took place.

The sagas, although based on real people and events, were passed down generations through oral traditions and storytelling, making them susceptible to changes, embellishments, and partial fabrication. Many view Lothbrok’s adventures as mythical – potentially a combination of various historical figures into one heroic persona, leveraging Ragnar’s established reputation.

Theses sagas, while considered historical accounts, may also have served as entertainment. For example, the Tale of Ragnar Lothbrok mentions him slaying giant snakes (sometimes depicted as a dragon) and strangling a bear, reflecting the blend of history and imaginative storytelling.

Ragnar receives Kráka (Aslaug), as imagined by August Malmström

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / August Malmström / Public domain

4. Leif Erikson reached America

The Icelandic explorer Lief Erikson is credited with reaching the North American continent around 1,000 AD. According to the Saga of Erik the Red, Erikson was on a mission to Greenland, but was blown off course and reached ‘Vinland’ (named due to the growth of wild grapes in the region). However, as this information comes from an Icelandic Viking Saga, it is therefore probably not totally accurate, more a suggestion of how the event occurred.

A further story, from Icelandic saga ‘the Groenlendinga saga’ (or ‘Saga of the Greenlanders’) is that Erikson learned about Vinland from Icelandic trader Bjarni Herjulfsson, who had sighted the North American coast from his ship 14 years before Erikson’s voyage, but had not stopped there. Again, questions arise over the accuracy of material from such Viking Sagas.

Nevertheless, in the 1960s, a Viking settlement known as  L’Anse aux Meadows was discovered by Norwegian explorers in Newfoundland, the most easterly province of Canada. It has been suggested this site was where Erikson landed.

5. Beserkers took magic mushrooms

There’s also the claim the Vikings had Berserkers – a kind of special forces that would be overcome with bloodlust and fought in a trance-like fury.

Claims that these ‘beserkers’ consumed magic mushrooms before battles to make them go ‘beserk’ lack evidence, and experts state there is absolutely no evidence of this.

6. There was one Viking Kingdom

The Vikings were never one unified kingdom, but rather comprised distinct groups from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.

Norway’s rugged terrain, long coastline and fjords gave rise to a seafaring culture, leading Norwegians to explore and colonised the North Atlantic islands, including the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and even voyaging to North America. 

Sweden, with a more temperate and flatter landscape along its south and eastern coasts, supported better agriculture and access to natural resources. The Swedes, also known as the ‘Rus,’ settled in present-day Ukraine and Russia, engaging with cultures from the Volga and Caspian Sea regions, as well as the Byzantine Empire. The Baltic Sea facilitated easy travel to and from eastern Europe, using vast rivers for trade.

Denmark’s relatively flat and fertile soil made it ideal for farming. The Danes established their monarchy in the 8th century, and consequently enjoyed political stability. Due to its location, Danish Vikings were often more involved in expeditions and settlements in Western Europe and the British Isles. 

During the Viking Age, the borders we recognise today didn’t exist, which fostered fluid interactions between these groups. Throughout Scandinavia, alliances, conflicts, trade, marriages, and shared religious and cultural practices all contributed to a complex interweaving of peoples.

The North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, c.1030. (The Norwegian lands of Jemtland, Herjedalen, Idre and Særna are not included in this map)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Hel-hama / CC BY-SA 3.0

The closest the Vikings got to having one Viking Kingdom was their North Sea Empire, under Cnut the Great (also known as Canute). The North Sea Empire, also known as the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire, was the personal union of the kingdoms of England, Denmark and Norway for the majority of the period between 1013 and 1042 towards the end of the Viking Age. This short-lived Norse-ruled empire’s components were only connected by and dependent upon the sea.

Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark since 986 and of Norway since 1000, had been the first king to unite all three kingdoms when he conquered England in 1013. Yet after his death just 5 weeks later in February 1014, the realm was divided once more. Forkbeard’s younger son Cnut acquired England in 1016, Denmark in 1018 and Norway in 1028. 

At the height of his power, when Cnut ruled all three kingdoms (1028–1035), he was the most powerful ruler in western Europe after the Holy Roman Emperor. However this empire collapsed immediately after Cnut’s death in 1035.

7. Vikings were all warriors and raiders

The Vikings, though often portrayed as warriors and raiders, had a multifaceted society with a significant emphasis on trade and craftsmanship.

Operating without a coinage system, they traded based on metal weight and the purity of metals, particularly silver, creating a ‘bullion economy.’ Despite their trading prowess, a darker aspect of Viking commerce was the reliance on slavery. Captives from raids were often taken back to Scandinavia, with the slave trade extending to Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

Scandinavia had few towns; most people would have lived on farmsteads and small villages. The early Viking Age was politically unstable and often lawless, with power localised around chieftains and tribal communities – life for the average farmhand would have often been harsh and short. Institutionalised systems of law and government emerged in the late 10th century, establishing the national kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, along with limited-scale urbanisation.

Hedeby Viking Museum, Germany.

Image Credit: Shutterstock

The Rigstula, likely written in the 10th or 11th century, outlined three social classes in Viking society. Jarls, the aristocracy, held the highest position, often as chieftains and commissioning expeditions. In the middle were karls or freemen, the majority of the population, engaged in farming, fishing, and craftsmanship. Thralls, or slaves, occupied the bottom tier, typically captured during raids but could potentially earn freedom.

Unlike many societies of the era, Viking women, excluding thralls, may have had rights and social freedom. Viking sagas depict women as strong and intelligent, with the majority working as farm-based housewives. Notably, women could request divorces, citing reasons such as sudden poverty, marital violence, or abandonment. Some women accompanied men on longer expeditions with the intention of settling.

8. Woman Warriors were commonplace

Whilst Viking poetry and sagas often depict strong and intelligent women who commanded the respect of the community, the term ‘Viking’ specifically referred to men. 

In reality, the majority of free women would have been farm-based housewives, yet there is also evidence from burials and the sagas that some women were involved in fighting. These Viking ‘warrior women’ are referred to as shield maidens, or the mythical Valkyries. However, just because the remains of women were found with weapons alongside them does not make them warriors.

For now we can probably assume that over 300 years of history, some women probably were involved in raids, but it was not commonplace. 

9. It all happened in Western Europe

Archaeological evidence reveals more Viking activity to the east of Scandinavia than in the west, challenging the common narrative that focuses on Viking invasions of Britain. The Swedes conducted voyages across the Baltic Sea into what we now call Russia, establishing the state of Kievan Rus’ in 882. The term ‘Rus‘ comes from the Old Norse word ‘Roa,’ meaning ‘to row’, and is connected to the modern country of Russia, where many Vikings settled. These expeditions primarily focused on trade, creating a vast network from the Black Sea to Finland.

The Vikings played a crucial role in rebuilding the European economy after the fall of the Roman Empire by establishing extensive trade networks. They set up settlements and trading posts in various European locations, including Spain, Sicily, and North Africa. Viking traders also navigated rivers in eastern Europe, connecting to the Black Sea, Constantinople, and the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate. This allowed them to access the Silk Road and trade diverse goods like amber, wool, fur, leather, fish and walrus ivory.  

Archaeological evidence, including a silver coin hoard that included Islamic coins found in England in 2011, illustrates the extensive reach of the Viking trading network.

10. They called themselves Vikings

Early Medieval Scandinavians would not have identified as Vikings, and there was no distinct Viking ethnic group. The term ‘Viking’ referred to a person going on expeditions, often abroad, with a broader meaning than just raiding. The term’s negative connotation emerged later in sagas, associating Vikings with pirates and predators. 

As kingdoms like Norway, Sweden, and Denmark developed, national identifiers became more common, but it is doubtful that individuals in the 11th century would identify as “Norwegian” or “Viking.” Instead, they likely referred to family names or local areas.

Today, it can take three flights to reach Lofoten from London and, once on the Norwegian archipelago, it can feel as though you are on the edge of the world. But in the Viking era, it was quite the opposite: the islands were actually knitted into trade, social, business and political networks that spread right across northern and western Europe.

In fact, Lofoten was home to the biggest Viking house that has ever been found. Uncovered by archaeologists on the island of Vestvågøy in 1983, this longhouse is thought to have belonged to successive Lofoten chieftains. A reconstruction has since been built 40 metres from the excavation site, and forms part of the Lofotr Viking Museum.

This article is an edited transcript of Vikings of Lofoten on Dan Snow’s History Hit, first broadcast 16 April 2016.

The biggest Viking house ever found

The reconstructed longhouse that forms part of the Lofotr Viking Museum. Credit: Jörg Hempel / Commons

The excavated remains and the reconstruction reveal the house to be enormous – it measured 83 metres long, nine metres wide and about nine metres high. The building’s size is unsurprising given that it served as the home of the archipelago’s rich and powerful chieftains, with the last occupant believed to be Olaf of Lofoten.

The chieftain would have lived in the house with his family, as well as his most trusted men and women – around 40 to 50 people altogether. But it wasn’t just people who lived there. Half of the house served as a large barn that was home to horses and cows. A gold-plated horse harness was excavated from the site of the original barn – an indicator of the chieftains’ status and wealth.

The original house on the site was built in around 500 AD but later made bigger and longer, and rebuilt and restructured a couple of times. The house on which the reconstruction is based was built in around the year 900 – around 100 years after the start of the Viking era.

At that point, Vikings from Scandanavia were attacking as far as England and Ireland, and on the verge of settling Iceland and even places across the Atlantic Ocean. 

Olaf of Lofoten – and Iceland?

The last Viking chieftain to have lived in the house – Olaf – is thought to have left for Iceland, and there is a possible reference to him in one of the Icelandic sagas:

“There came a man from Lofotr, Olaf was his name.” 

“Lofotr” was the former name of Vestvågøy but later given to the whole of the island group. In English, however, the archipelago is referred to as “Lofoten”.

To have travelled to Iceland at that time and to have conquered new land, a Viking would have needed to have been rich and powerful. They would have needed a ship, horses and enough money to fund resettling there. As the Lofoten chieftain, Olaf likely would have had all of that. So the chances are very good that he did indeed go to Iceland.

Inside the reconstructed chieftain’s house

The reconstruction enables visitors to get a feel for a Viking chieftain’s house, albeit minus the livestock. Vast and echo-y, it’s a dramatic space and has a sort of grandeur to it. Plastic and metal are nowhere to be seen, with both the building itself and the furniture made of wood.

The walls, meanwhile, are covered with sheep and reindeer skins, giving the building a cosy feel despite its vastness. It’s easy to imagine spending a Viking winter there, coming in from the terrible weather outside when there would have been a fire going, the smell of smoke and tar mixing with the smell of food cooking in the air, and the sounds of craftspeople working all around.

A resourceful people

Whether they were building ships or remarkable buildings like the chieftain’s house on Lofoten, the Vikings proved themselves to be extraordinary craftspeople who were phenomenally good at working with wood, textiles and metal. And they had to be in order to survive some pretty tricky weather.

They also had to make use of the resources that were to hand or relatively easily accessible. Wood wasn’t plentiful on the Lofoten Islands, but the Vikings didn’t have to travel too far by boat in order to import the big trees needed for the kind of work seen at the Lofoten chieftain’s house, which includes huge pillars decorated with beautiful hand-carvings.

When it came to metal work, the Vikings made – among other things – jewellery and sword grips that were rich with ornaments and so detailed that, even if they had been produced today, you might find it hard to believe they were handmade.

Meanwhile, unlike today where we see water as representing a barrier, the Vikings on Lofoten were at the centre of a trading network. As seafarers, they could travel extensively and reach London or central Europe in just a few days; in some respects they were actually at the centre of the world.

Of course, back then, Lofoten was still at the top of the world. But it was a very rich part of the world when it came to resources. So it’s easy to understand why people decided to live there. There was plenty of fish in the sea, as well as other marine life to live off. There would have been game in the forests and lots of other natural resources available that would have been greatly sought after in other parts of the world.

Here are ten of the most important.

1. Bertha of Kent

Bertha, a Frankish princess, was born in the early 560s to Charibert I, King of Paris, and a woman named Ingoberga. She was married off to King Æthelberht of Kent, an Anglo-Saxon pagan. In 597, St Augustine arrived in England to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.

Bertha is depicted in a stained glass window of the Chapter House, Canterbury Cathedral. Image source: Mattana / CC BY-SA 3.0.

It is widely believed that Bertha was instrumental in persuading her husband to embrace the new religion, as all accounts of St Augustine’s work named her as a prominent figure. Pope Gregory wrote to Bertha in 601, praising what “great succour and what charity you have bestowed upon Augustine”. She was compared to Helena, the mother of Emperor Constantine, who persuaded her son to convert to Christianity.

2. Æthelflæd

The eldest daughter of Alfred the Great, Æthelflæd was born in 870, a time when Viking invasions were at their height. By 878, East Anglia and Northumbria were conquered, meaning most of England was under Danish Viking rule.

Æthelflæd in the 13th century Genealogical Chronicle of the English Kings.

Æthelflæd’s father, Alfred, married her to Æthelred to cement a strategic alliance between the surviving English kingdoms. After Æthelred’s death in 911, Æthelflæd ruled Mercia as Lady of the Mercians, where she would transform the balance of power.

She embarked on a defensive rebuilding programme in towns such as Tamworth, Warwick and Bridgnorth, recaptured Derby and was offered loyalty by the Viking leaders of York.

3. Matilda of Flanders

According to legend, when the Norman Duke William the Bastard sent his representative to ask Matilda’s hand in marriage, she retorted she was too high-born to marry a bastard. Furious at this snub, William rode to find Matilda, dragged her off her horse by her long braids and threw her down in the street.

A statue of Matilda of Flanders in the Luxembourg Gardens, Paris. Image source: Jastrow / CC BY 3.0.

Whether such rumours are true or not, the marriage to William – who became William the Conqueror – seemed to be successful. Their 9 children were known for being remarkably well educated, and their daughters were educated at Sainte-Trinité in Caen.

4. Matilda of Scotland

Matilda was the daughter of the English princess Saint Margaret and the Scottish king Malcom III. After a messy succession crisis in Scotland, Matilda married the English king, Henry I, and steadied relations between the two nations.

Matilda of Scotland was the mother of William Adelin and Empress Matilda.

In England, she led a literary and musical court, embarked on building projects for the church and ruled in her husband’s name during his absence.

5. Empress Matilda

Matilda of Scotland’s daughter, also named Matilda, was married to the future Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V. When her brother, William Adelin, died in the White Ship disaster of 1120, Matilda returned to England to be nominated heir.

Empress Matilda in ‘History of England’ by St. Albans monks of the 15th century.

She was an unpopular choice in the Anglo-Norman court. When her father died the throne was taken by Matilda’s cousin, Stephen of Blois, who was backed by the English church. Civil war broke out, and the disorder which prevailed gave this period the name of ‘The Anarchy‘.

On one occasion, Matilda was trapped in Oxford Castle, and escaped across the frozen River Isis in a white sheet to avoid capture. Although never officially crowned Queen of England, Matilda was titled Lady of the English, and her son succeeded the throne as Henry II.

6. Eleanor of Aquitaine

Eleanor was born into the House of Poitiers, a powerful dynasty in southwestern France. As a Duchess of Aquitaine, she was the most eligible bride in Europe. Her marriage to Louis VII of France produced two daughters, but was soon annulled on account of consanguinity.

A 14th century depiction of Eleanor marrying her first husband, Louis. On the right, Louis sets sail for the Second Crusade.

Just eight weeks later, she was engaged to the Duke of Normandy. He became Henry II of England in 1154, beaconing a period of stability after civil war had raged.

Eleanor and Henry had eight children, three of whom became kings. Their marriage broke down when Henry imprisoned Eleanor in 1173 for supporting their son’s revolt against him. After her husband’s death, she acted as regent while Richard the Lionheart went on the Third Crusade.

7. Queen Philippa of Hainault

Married to Edward III for 40 years, Phillipa acted as regent for her husband in 1346, and accompanied his expeditions to Scotland, France and Flanders. The eldest of their thirteen children was Edward, the Black Prince.

Her compassion and kindness made her a popular figure, especially in 1347 when she persuaded her husband to spare the lives of the Burghers of Calais. The Queen’s College in Oxford was founded in her honour.

8. Isabella of Valois

Miniature detailing Richard II of England receiving his six-year-old bride Isabel of Valois from her father Charles VI of France.

Isabella was the daughter of Charles VI of France and Isabeau of Bavaria. At the age of six, she was married to Richard II, who was then 29.

Despite the union acting as a political exercise to improve French and English relations, Richard and Isabella developed a respectful relationship. He regularly visited her in Windsor and entertained her and her ladies-in-waiting.

Richard’s death cut the marriage short, leaving Isabella widowed at the age of 9. She went on to marry Charles, Duke of Orléans and died in childbirth at the age of 19.

Her sister, Catherine, would briefly marry Henry V and give birth to the future Henry VI. Through her second marriage to Owen Tudor, Catherine became the grandmother of the future Henry VII.

9. Anne Neville

As a daughter of Richard Neville, who was known as ‘Warwick the Kingmaker’, Anne was used as an important bargaining chip in the Wars of the Roses. She was originally betrothed to Edward, Prince of Wales, who was the son of Edward IV.

After the death of Prince Edward, she married the Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III. Anne bore a son, Edward of Middleham, who predeceased his parents. Anne also died of tuberculosis in 1485, and later that year Richard was slain at the Battle of Bosworth.

10. Margaret of Anjou

Margaret married King Henry VI, and ruled as Queen of England and France in accordance with the agreements made by Henry V at the Treaty of Troyes. After her husband suffered from bouts of insanity, Margaret ruled in his place.

The marriage of Henry VI and Margaret would break down when Henry suffered bouts of insanity.

Her provocative actions and position as leader of the Lancastrian cause made her a key player in the Wars of the Roses, although she would never enjoy much success. In her final years, she lived in France as a poor relation of the king, and died there aged 52.

But what happened in these intervening 600 years? Who were the Anglo Saxons, and how did they shape what England has become today?

1. The Anglo-Saxons didn’t completely displace the local population

The Anglo-Saxons, as we call them, were a mix of all kinds of peoples, but were mainly formed by immigrants from Northern Europe and Scandinavia – predominantly from the tribes of the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes.

The collapse of Roman power in Britain left something of a power vacuum: these new peoples settled in the east of England and moved their way west, fighting, occupying and incorporating existing peoples and land into their new society.

2. They certainly didn’t live in the ‘Dark Ages’

The term ‘Dark Ages’ has increasingly fallen out of favour with modern historians. Generally this term was applied across Europe following the fall of the Roman Empire – in Britain in particular, the economy went into freefall and warlords replaced previous political structures.

Map of Anglo SAxon homelands and settlements based on Bede’s Ecclesiastical History

Image Credit: mbartelsm / CC

Part of the ‘vacuum’ of the 5th and 6th centuries in particular stems from the lack of written sources – in fact, in Britain, there’s only one: Gildas, a 6th century British monk. It’s thought many of the libraries pre-dating this were destroyed by the Saxons, but also that there wasn’t the demand or skill to be producing written histories or documents during this period of turbulence.

3. Anglo-Saxon Britain was made up of 7 kingdoms

Known as the heptarchy, Anglo-Saxon Britain was formed of 7 kingdoms: Northumbria, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Kent, Wessex and Mercia. Each nation was independent, and all vied for supremacy and dominance through a series of wars.

4. Christianity became Britain’s dominant religion during this period

Roman occupation had helped bring and spread Christianity to Britain, but it was only with the arrival of Augustine in 597AD that there was a renewed interest – and increased conversions – to Christianity.

Whilst some of this may have stemmed from faith, there were also political and cultural reasons for leaders to convert. Many early converts kept a hybrid of Christian and pagan customs and rituals rather than committing to one side fully.

5. The first precursor to English was spoken during this period

Old English – a Germanic language with origins in Old Norse and Old High German – developed during the Anglo-Saxon period, and it was at around this time the famous epic poem Beowulf was written.

6. It was a culturally rich period

Barring the first two hundred years after the collapse of Roman rule, the Anglo-Saxon period was incredibly culturally rich. Hoards like those found at Sutton Hoo and the Staffordshire Hoard evidence the craftsmanship being executed at the time, whilst surviving illustrated manuscripts show that no expense was spared in the creation of texts and art.

Whilst our knowledge of the intimate details of the Anglo-Saxon period is somewhat hazy, the evidence we have shows that this was a period rich with artisans and craftsmen.

7. We know little about lots of areas of Anglo-Saxon life

The lack of written sources mean that historians and archaeologists have a lot of grey areas over Anglo-Saxon life. Women, for example, are something of a mystery and it’s hard to understand their role or what life might have been like for a woman in this period because there are simply no records or indicators – although to some, the absence of mentions of women speaks volumes.

8. The Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings fought for supremacy

Vikings arrived at Lindisfarne in 793, and from then on, began to tussle with the Anglo-Saxons for control of Britain. Some Vikings settled in the east of Britain in an area known as the Danelaw, but disputes between the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings continued, with Anglo-Saxon Britain coming under the rule of the Vikings for periods.

Both Anglo-Saxon and Viking rule was brought to an abrupt end by the defeat of Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings in 1066: the Normans then began their reign.

Bamburgh enjoyed the zenith of its power and prestige between the mid-7th and mid-8th centuries AD, when the stronghold was the royal seat of power for the Anglo-Saxon kings of Northumbria. Yet the kingdom’s prestige soon invited unwelcome attention from overseas.

The raid

In 793 sleek Viking warships appeared off Bamburgh’s coast and landed on the Holy Island of Lindisfarne. What followed was one of the most infamous moments in medieval English history. Having heard tales of the monastery’s great wealth, the Viking raiders plundered the monastery and killed the monks within sight of Bamburgh’s stone walls. It marked the beginning of the Viking age of terror in Northumbria.

Intermittently over the next 273 years Vikings and Anglo-Saxon warlords vied for land, power and influence in Northumbria. Much of the kingdom fell into Viking hands, though Bamburgh managed to remain under Anglo-Saxon control. The Vikings did sack Bamburgh in 993, but it never came directly under the Viking yoke unlike York to the south.

Viking longships.

Enter the Normans

Having resisted the Viking scourge, the Anglo-Saxon Earls of Bamburgh soon found themselves facing another threat. In the Autumn of 1066 William the Conqueror and his Norman army landed at Pevensey Bay, defeated King Harold at Hastings and subsequently seized the English Crown.

It was not long before he set about consolidating his hold on his spear-won kingdom, particularly in the north. Just as the Romans had done some 1,000 years earlier, William quickly realised Bamburgh’s strategic location and how it provided a vital buffer for his domain against the troublesome Scots to the North.

For a time William allowed the Earls of Bamburgh to maintain a relative degree of independence. But it did not last long. Several revolts erupted in the north, forcing the Conqueror to march north and inflict great devastation on his northern lands until near the end of the 11^th century.

In 1095 William’s namesake son, King William II ‘Rufus’ successfully captured Bamburgh after a siege and the stronghold fell into the king’s possession.

The Normans went on to strengthen Bamburgh’s defences to keep watch over England’s northern frontier. The nucleus of the castle that remains today is of Norman design, although Bamburgh’s keep was built by David, a Scottish king (Bamburgh fell into Scottish hands several times).

During the rest of the medieval period Bamburgh Castle witnessed several of the Age’s most famous English figures. Kings Edward I, II and III all ventured to this northern bastion as they prepared to campaign in Scotland, and for a time during the late 1300s, a young, dashing and charismatic commander controlled the castle: Sir Henry ‘Harry’ Hotspur.

Bamburgh Castle’s swansong

By the start of the 15^th century Bamburgh remained one of the most formidable fortresses in Britain, a symbol of power and strength. But in 1463 England was in a state of turmoil. Civil war, the so-called ‘Wars of the Roses’ divided the land between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians.

Prior to 1462 Bamburgh had been a Lancastrian stronghold, supporting the exiled King Henry VI and his wife Margaret of Anjou.

In mid-1462 Margaret and Henry had sailed down from Scotland with an army and occupied the strategically-important castle, but it did not last. King Edward IV, the Yorkist king, marched north with his own force to drive the Lancastrians out of Northumberland.

Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick (better known as the Kingmaker) and Edward’s trusted Lieutenant, besieged Dunstaburgh and Bamburgh: after a brief siege both Lancastrian garrisons surrendered on Christmas Eve 1462. Yorkist control of Northumberland had been secured. But not for long.

Detail from “Bamborough Castle” by John Varley, 1827.

Attempting to reconcile his subjects Edward restored control of Bamburgh, Alnwick and Dunstanburgh – the three main bastions in Northumberland – to Ralph Percy, a Lancastrian who had recently-defected.

Edward’s trust proved misplaced. Percy’s loyalty proved paper-thin, and he betrayed Edward soon after, returning Bamburgh and the other bastions into Lancastrian hands. To strengthen their hold a new Lancastrian force – mainly French and Scottish troops – soon arrived to garrison the castles.

Once again fighting raged in Northumberland as Percy and Henry Beaufort, 3^rd Duke of Somerset, attempted to cement Lancastrian authority in northwest England. It proved to no avail. By 15 May 1464 superior Yorkist forces had crushed the remnants of the Lancastrian army – both Somerset and Percy perished during the campaign. The Lancastrian defeat resulted in the garrisons at Alnwick and Dunstanburgh peacefully surrendering to the Yorkists.

But Bamburgh proved a different story.

1464: The Siege of Bamburgh

Despite being heavily outnumbered the Lancastrian garrison at Bamburgh, commanded by Sir Ralph Grey, refused to surrender. And so on 25 June, Warwick laid siege to the stronghold.

Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. From the Rous Roll, “Warwick the Kingmaker”, Oman, 1899.

The siege did not last long. Within his army’s ranks Warwick had (at least) 3 powerful pieces of artillery, dubbed ‘Newcastle’, ‘London’ and ‘Dysyon’. They unleashed a powerful bombardment on the fortress. The strong Norman walls proved all-but powerless and soon gaping holes appeared in the stronghold’s defences and the buildings within, causing great destruction.

Soon large parts of Bamburgh’s defences were reduced to rubble, the garrison surrendered the city and Grey lost his head. The 1464 Siege of Bamburgh proved the only set-piece siege to occur during the Wars of the Roses, with its fall signalling the end of Lancastrian power in Northumberland.

Most importantly, it also signalled the first time an English castle had fallen to cannon-fire. The message was clear: the age of the castle was at an end.

Revival

For the next 350-400 years, Bamburgh Castle’s remains fell into disrepair. Fortunately in 1894, wealthy industrialist William Armstrong set about restoring the property to its former glory. To this day it remains the home of the Armstrong Family with a history few other castles can match.

They did, however, have to wrestle with the Vikings to retain control of their lands during that period, and were sometimes forced to concede power to Danish kings – including Canute (aka Cnut), who ruled an empire in England, Denmark and Norway.

The Anglo-Saxon era ended with William of Normandy’s triumph at the battle of Hastings in 1066, which ushered in a new era of Norman rule.

Here are 20 facts about this fascinating historical period:

1. The Anglo-Saxons were immigrants 

Around 410, Roman rule in Britain faltered, leaving a power vacuum that was filled by incomers arriving from northern Germany and southern Scandinavia.

As soon as Roman power began to wane, the Roman defences to the north (such as Hadrian’s wall) started to degrade, and in AD 367 the Picts smashed through them.

Hoard of Anglo-Saxon rings found in Leeds, West Yorkshire. Credit: portableantiquities / Commons.

Gildas, a 6th century monk, says that Saxon war tribes were hired to defend Britain when the Roman army left. So the Anglo-Saxons were originally invited immigrants.

Bede, a monk from Northumbria writing some centuries later, says that they were from some of the most powerful and warlike tribes in Germany.

2. But some of them took control by murdering their hosts

A man called Vortigern was appointed to lead the British, and he was probably the person who recruited the Saxons.

But at a conference between the nobles of the Britons and Anglo-Saxons [likely in AD 472, although some sources say AD 463] the Anglo-Saxons produced concealed knives and murdered the British.

Vortigern was left alive, but he had to cede large parts of the southeast. He essentially became ruler in name alone.

3. The Anglo-Saxons were made up of different tribes

Bede names 3 of these tribes: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. But there were probably many other peoples who set out for Britain in the early 5th century.

Batavians, Franks and Frisians are known to have made the sea crossing to the stricken province of ‘Britannia’.

4. They didn’t just stick to the southeast of England

The Angles, Saxons, Jutes and other incomers burst out of the southeast in the mid-5th century and set southern Britain ablaze.

Gildas, our closest witness, says that a new British leader emerged from the onslaught, called Ambrosius Aurelianus.

Anglo-Saxons were often buried with everything they would need after death. In this case the dead woman’s family thought she would need her cow on the other side.

5. There was a mighty battle between the Saxons and the Britons

A great battle took place, supposedly sometime around AD 500, at a place called Mons Badonicus or Mount Badon, probably somewhere in the southwest of today’s England.

The Saxons were resoundingly defeated by the Britons. A later Welsh source says that the victor was ‘Arthur’ but it was written down hundreds of years after the event, when it may have become influenced by folklore.

6.  But Gildas might have spoken of Arthur in code…

Gildas does not mention Arthur, but there are theories as to the reason why.

One is that Gildas did refer to him in a sort of acrostic code, which reveals him to be a chieftain from Gwent called Cuneglas.

Gildas called Cuneglas ‘the bear’, and Arthur means ‘bear’. Nevertheless, for the time being the Anglo-Saxon advance had been checked by someone, possibly Arthur.

7. England wasn’t one country at this point

‘England’ as a country did not come into existence for hundreds of years after the Anglo-Saxons arrived.

Instead, seven major kingdoms were carved out of conquered areas: Northumbria, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Kent, Wessex and Mercia.

All these nations were fiercely independent, and – although they shared similar languages, pagan religions, and socioeconomic and cultural ties – they were absolutely loyal to their own kings and deeply distrusting of each other.

8. They didn’t call themselves the Anglo-Saxons

The term seems to have been first used in the 8th century to distinguish Germanic-speaking peoples who lived in Britain from those on the continent.

In 786, George, bishop of Ostia, travelled to England to attend a church meeting, and he reported to the Pope that he had been to ‘Angul Saxnia’.

9. One of the most fearsome warrior-kings was Penda

Penda, who was from Mercia and ruled from AD 626 until 655, killed many of his rivals with his own hands.

As one of the last pagan Anglo-Saxon kings, he offered up the body of one of them, King Oswald of Northumbria, to Woden.

Penda ransacked many of the other Anglo-Saxon realms, amassing exquisite treasures as tribute and the discarded war-gear of fallen warriors on the battlefields.

10. The Anglo-Saxon period witnessed the growth of Christianity in England

Religion changed a lot throughout the Anglo-Saxon period. Many people were initially pagans and worshipped different gods who oversaw different things people did – for instance, Wade was the god of the sea, and Tiw was the god of war.

This cross found in a Anglo-Saxon grave shows how important Christianity had become to the Saxons by Alfred’s time.

In c.596, a monk named Augustine arrived on England’s shores; Pope Gregory the Great had sent him on a Christian mission to convert Britain’s Anglo-Saxons.

Upon his arrival Augustine founded a church in Canterbury, becoming the settlement’s first Archbishop in 597. Gradually, Augustine helped Christianity gained a foothold in the southeast, baptising the local monarch in 601. It marked only the beginning.

Today we consider Saint Augustine the founder of the English Church: ‘the Apostle to the English.’

11. An African refugee helped reform the English church

Some Anglo-Saxon monarchs converted to Christianity because the church had proclaimed the Christian God would deliver them victory in battles. When this failed to happen, however, some Anglo-Saxon kings turned their back on the religion.

The two men chosen to keep them wedded to Christianity were an elderly Greek named Theodore of Tarsus and a younger man, Hadrian ‘the African’, a Berber refugee from north Africa.

After more than a year (and many adventures) they arrived, and set to work to reform the English church. They would stay for the rest of their lives.

12. One of the most well-known kings from Mercia was Offa, and remnants of his reign exist today

He declared himself the first ‘king of the English’ because he won battles involving kings in the surrounding kingdoms, but their dominance didn’t really last after Offa died.

Offa is most remembered for Offa’s Dyke along the border between England and Wales – it was a 150-mile barrier that gave the Mercians protection if they were about to be invaded.

A reconstruction of a typical Anglo-Saxon structure.

13. Alfred the Great is one of England’s most important kings

Alfred, king of Wessex, stood strong against Viking threat and thereby paved the way for the future unity of England, which was brought to fruition under his son and grandsons.

By the mid-10th century, the England we are familiar with was ruled as one country for the first time.

14. But he had a crippling disability

As he grew up, Alfred was constantly troubled by illness, including irritating and painful piles – a real problem in an age where a prince was constantly in the saddle.

Asser, the Welshman who became his biographer, relates that Alfred suffered from another painful illness that is not specified.

Some people believe it was Crohn’s Disease, others that it may have been a sexually transmitted disease, or even severe depression.

18th century portrait of Alfred by Samuel Woodforde.

15. Corfe witnessed a horrible Anglo-Saxon regicide…

In July 975 the eldest son of King Edgar, Edward, was crowned king. But Edward’s step-mother, Elfrida (or ‘Aelfthryth’), wanted Aethelred, her own son, to be king – at any cost.

One day in 978, Edward decided to pay Elfrida and Aethelred a visit in their residence at Corfe in Dorset.

But as Edward stooped to accept a drink upon arrival, the grooms grabbed his bridle and stabbed him repeatedly in the stomach.

There are several theories to who was behind the murder: Edward’s step-mother, Edward’s step-brother or Aelfhere, a leading Ealdorman

16. …and his body was only buried properly in 1984

Edward managed to ride away but bled to death, and was hastily buried by the conspirators.

Edward’s body was exhumed and reburied at Shaftesbury Abbey in AD 979. During the dissolution of the monasteries the grave was lost, but in 1931 it was rediscovered.

Edward’s bones were kept in a bank vault until 1984, when at last he was laid to rest.

Normans burn Anglo-Saxon buildings in the Bayeux Tapestry

17. England was ‘ethnically cleansed’

During Aethelred’s disastrous reign, he looked to make the Danes – who were by now respectable Christian citizens, who had been settled in the country for generations – into scapegoats.

On 13 November 1002, secret orders were sent out to slaughter all the Danes, and massacres occurred all over southern England.

18. And it partially led to the Anglo-Saxon’s downfall

One of the Danes killed in this wicked pogrom was the sister of Sweyn Forkbeard, the mighty king of Denmark.

From that time on the Danish armies were resolved to conquer England and eliminate Ethelred. This was the beginning of the end for Anglo-Saxon England.

19. Much of what we know about the Anglo-Saxons comes from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great (r. 871–899).

Multiple copies were made of that one original and then distributed to monasteries across England, where they were independently updated.

The Chronicle is the single most important historical source for the period. Much of the information given in the Chronicle is not recorded elsewhere. The manuscripts are also vital for our understanding of the history of the English language.

20. There are lots of archaeological sites of interest related to the Anglo-Saxons that have also helped us to learn about them

One famous example is Sutton Hoo, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, which is the site of two 6th and early 7th-century cemeteries.

The various financial agreements could be paid in coins, a certain amount of raw precious metal, or even in land and livestock.

One cemetery contained an undisturbed ship-burial, including a wealth of Anglo-Saxon artefacts of outstanding art-historical and archaeological significance.

Anglo-Saxons also minted their own coins, which helps archaeologists know when they were used. The coins changed depending on the region where they were made, who was king, or even what important event had just happened.

The turning point came on 8 June of that year when the Vikings launched an attack on the wealthy and unprotected monastery-island of Lindisfarne. Though it was not technically the first raid on the British Isles (that had taken place in 787), it marked the first time the northmen had sent shivers of fear throughout the Kingdom of Northumbria, England and wider Europe.

A punishment from God?

The Lindisfarne raid took place during the time normally known as the “Dark Ages” but Europe was already well into the process of emerging from the ashes of Rome. Charlemagne’s powerful and enlightened rule covered much of continental Europe, and he respected and shared contact with the formidable English King Offa of Mercia.

The Vikings’ sudden attack on Lindisfarne was not, therefore, just another spasm of violence in a barbaric and lawless era, but a genuinely shocking and unexpected event.

The raid did not actually strike England but the northern Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, which stretched from the Humber river to the lowlands of modern Scotland. With unfriendly neighbours to the north and a new power centre to the south, Northumbria was a tough place to control where the rulers had to be capable warriors.

The king of Northumbria at that time, Aethelred I, had just returned from exile to forcibly retake the throne and, after the Viking attack, Charlemagne’s favourite scholar and theologian – Alcuin of York – wrote a stern letter to Aethelred blaming him and the depravities of his court for this divine punishment from the north.

The emergence of the Vikings

While Christianity gradually tempered the population of western Europe, the inhabitants of Sweden, Norway and Denmark were still fierce pagan warriors and raiders, who, up until 793, had largely expended their energy fighting each other.

Several factors have been suggested for the Vikings’ sudden emergence from obscurity in the late 8th century, including overpopulation on the barren Danish mainland, growing horizons as the new and international Islamic world expanded and took trade to the farthest corners of the earth, and new technology that allowed them to cross large bodies of water safely.

In all likelihood it was a combination of many of these factors, but some advance in technology was certainly required to make it possible. All sea travel in the ancient world had been confined to coastal waters and the relatively calm Mediterranean, and crossing and navigating large bodies of water such as the North Sea would have previously been too dangerous to attempt.

Despite their reputation as primitive and savage raiders, the Vikings enjoyed superior naval technology to anyone else at the time, giving them a permanent edge at sea and an ability to strike wherever they liked without warning.

Rich and easy pickings

How Lindisfarne looks today. Credit: Agnete

In 793, however, none of this was known to the inhabitants of Lindisfarne Island, where a priory founded by the Irish Saint Aiden had existed peacefully since 634. By the time of the raid, it was the centre of Christianity in Northumbria, and a rich and widely-visited site.

The fact that the Vikings chose to attack Lindisfarne demonstrates either extraordinary luck or surprisingly good information and careful planning. Not only was it stuffed with riches used in the religious ceremonies, but it was almost completely undefended and far enough off the coast to ensure that it would be easy prey for seaborne attackers before any help could arrive.

Even if the Vikings had enjoyed prior information about Lindisfarne, the raiders must have been amazed at such rich and easy pickings.

What happened next is predictable and probably best-described by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – a collection of annals created in the late 9th century that chronicled the history of the Anglo-Saxons:

“793 AD. This year came dreadful fore-warnings over the land of the Northumbrians, terrifying the people most woefully: these were immense sheets of light rushing through the air, and whirlwinds, and fiery dragons flying across the firmament. These tremendous tokens were soon followed by a great famine: and not long after, on the sixth day before the ides of January in the same year, the harrowing inroads of heathen men made lamentable havoc in the church of God in Holy-island, by rapine and slaughter.” 

A very gloomy picture indeed.

The outcome of the raid

A map of Europe showing areas of major Viking incursions and the dates of famous Vikings raids. Credit: Adhavoc

Presumably some of the monks tried to resist, or to prevent the seizure of their books and treasure, for Alcuin confirms that they met a grisly end:

“Never before has such terror appeared in Britain as we have now suffered from a pagan race … The heathens poured out the blood of saints around the altar, and trampled on the bodies of saints in the temple of God, like dung in the streets.”

We know less today about the fate of the Vikings but it is unlikely that the thin, cold and untrained monks could have caused them much harm. For the Northmen, the raid was most significant in that it set a precedent, showing them and their eager companions back home that wealth, slaves and glory were to be found across the sea.

In the coming centuries, the Vikings would raid as far as Kiev, Constantinople, Paris and most coastal places in between. But England and Northumbria would suffer in particular.

The latter ceased to exist in 866 when it fell to an army of Danes, and many place names along the north-east coast of England (such as York and Skegness) still show the marked effect of their rule, which lasted in York until 957.

Norse rule of the islands of Scotland would continue for much longer, with native speakers of Norwegian in Scotland lasting well into the 18th century. The attack on Lindisfarne started an era that played an immense role in shaping the culture of the British Isles and much of mainland Europe.

Its real historical significance, however, was that it weakened the army of King Harold to an extent where he could be beaten by another man of Viking descent – William the Conqueror.

Raised for war

Harald was born in 1015 in Norway, and the sagas that have preserved his memory claim descent from the legendary first King of that country – Harald Fairhair.

At the time of his birth, Norway was part of the Danish empire of King Cnut, which included England and parts of Sweden. The Norwegians were not happy with foreign rule and Harald’s older brother Olaf was exiled for his dissent in 1028.

14th-century portrait of Cnut the Great. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

When the fifteen year-old Harald heard of his planned return two years later, he gathered a force of 600 men to meet his brother, and together they raised an army to take on Cnut’s loyalists. At the ensuing battle of Stiklestad Olaf was killed, and Harald badly wounded and forced to flee, though not before showing considerable fighting skill.

Rise to stardom

After recovering in a remote cottage in the far north-east, he escaped into Sweden and, after a year of travelling, found himself in the Kievan Rus – the confederation of Slavic tribes which included Ukraine and Belarus, and is seen as the ancestor state to modern Russia.

Surrounded by enemies and in need of soldiers, Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise welcomed the newcomer, whose brother had already served him during his own exile, and gave him command of a detachment of men near modern St Petersburg.

Over the following years Harald saw his star rise after fighting against the Poles, Romans and the fierce steppe nomads who always threatened from the east.

Mercenary service

By 1034 the Norwegian had a personal following of around 500 men, and took them south to Constantinople, capital of the Roman Empire. For decades now the Roman Emperors had kept a bodyguard of Norsemen, Germans and Saxons, picked for their powerful stature and known as the Varangian Guard.

Harald was an obvious choice, and quickly became the overall leader of this body of men, though he was still only twenty or twenty-one. Despite their status as bodyguards the Varangians saw action all across the Empire, and Harald was credited with the capture of 80 Arab fortresses in present-day Iraq.

Near-contemporary depiction of Byzantine Varangian Guardsmen, in an illumination from the ‘Skylitzes Synopsis’. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

After peace was won with the Arabs, he joined an expedition to retake Sicily, which had recently been conquered and declared an Islamic caliphate.

There, fighting alongside mercenaries from Normandy, he further cemented his reputation, and in the tumultuous years that followed he saw service in the south of Italy and Bulgaria, where he earned the nickname “Bulgar burner.”

When the old Emperor, and Harald’s patron, Michael IV died, his fortunes sank however, and he found himself imprisoned. Various sagas and accounts give different reasons why, though there are many hints at a sex scandal at court, which was divided between the followers of the new Emperor Michael V and the powerful Empress Zoe.

His stay in jail was not long, however, and when some loyal Varangians helped him escape he exacted a personal revenge and blinded the Emperor, before taking his newly amassed wealth and marrying Yaroslav’s daughter back in the Rus. In 1042, he heard of Cnut’s death and decided that the time was right to return home.

Though he had helped her win the imperial throne, Zoe refused to let him go, and so he once again escaped with a band of loyal men, heading north.

Returning home

By the time he returned in 1046, Cnut’s empire had collapsed, his sons had both died, and a new rival, Magnus the Good, son of Olaf, ruled over Norway and Denmark.

In the latter kingdom he had deposed Harald’s other nephew Sweyn Estridsson, who he joined in exile in Sweden. His efforts to oust the popular Magnus proved futile however, and after negotiations they agreed to co-rule Norway.

After just one year, fate and luck played into Harald’s hands, as Magnus died childless. Sweyn was then made King of Denmark, while Harald finally became sole ruler of his homeland. Never content with sitting still, the years between 1048 and 1064 were spent in constant, successful but ultimately fruitless war with Sweyn, which won Harald more reputation but never yielded the throne of Denmark.

He also earned his nickname “Hardrada” – hard ruler – during these years.

King of Norway

Norway was a land unused to strong central rule, and the powerful local lords were difficult to subdue, meaning that many were violently and brutally purged. These measures proved effective however, and most domestic opposition had been removed by the end of the wars with Denmark.

The more positive side of his rule was brought by his travels, as Harald opened trade with the Romans and the Rus, and developed a sophisticated money economy in Norway for the first time. Perhaps more surprisingly, he also helped the slow spread of Christianity across the scattered rural parts of the country, where many still prayed before the old Norse gods.

After 1064 it became clear that Denmark would never belong to Harald, but events across the North Sea in England soon turned his head, After the death of Cnut, that country had been ruled by the steady hand of Edward the Confessor, who had spent the 1050s negotiating with the Norwegian King and even hinting that he might be named as successor to the English throne.

The Viking invasion

When the old King died childless in 1066 and Harold Godwinson succeeded, Harald was angry, and allied himself with Harold’s bitter estranged brother Tostig, who helped convince him that he ought to seize the power that was rightfully his. By September, his swift preparations for an invasion were complete, and he set sail.

The Battle of Stamford Bridge, from The Life of King Edward the Confessor by Matthew Paris. 13th century. Image credit: Matthew Paris, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Matthew Paris, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Harald was getting old by now and knew the risks of the campaign – making sure to declare his son Magnus King before leaving. On 18 September, after a journey via the Orkney and Shetland islands, the Norwegian fleet of 10-15000 men landed on English shores.

There Harald met Tostig face-to-face for the first time, and they planned their attack southwards. The situation had played into their hands. King Harold was waiting with the English army on the south coast, anticipating an invasion from William, the Duke of Normandy, who – like Harald – believed that he had been promised the English throne.

The Norwegian army first met with resistance from the town of Scarborough, which refused to surrender. In response Hardrada burned it to the ground, causing several northern towns to hurriedly pledge their allegiance.

Though Harold was only just responding to the threat in the north, having been taken completely by surprise, his strongest northern lords, Morcar of Northumbria and Edwin of Mercia, raised armies and met the Norwegians at Fulford near York, where they were soundly defeated on 20 September.

York, the old Viking capital, then fell, leaving the north of England conquered.

The Earls and their men fought bravely at the Battle of Fulford, but were hopelessly outmatched. But then Hardrada made his fatal mistake. In keeping with the practice of Viking raiders in the past, he withdrew from York and waited for the hostages and ransom he had been promised. This withdrawal gave Harold his chance.

On 25 September Hardrada and his men went to receive York’s leading citizens, lazy, confident and wearing only the lightest of armour. Then, suddenly, at Stamford Bridge, Harold’s army fell on them, having undergone a lightning-quick forced march to surprise Harald’s forces.

Fighting without armour, Hardrada was killed – along with Tostig, at the beginning of the battle and his troops quickly lost heart.

The remnants of the Viking army got back into their ships and sailed home. For the Vikings, this marked the end of an era of great Viking raids on the British isles; for Harold however, his struggle was far from over.

Following his victory at Stamford Bridge, Harold’s exhausted, bloodied men then heard terrible news to cut off any thoughts of celebration. Hundreds of miles to the south William – a man who combined French discipline with Viking savagery, had landed unopposed.

As for Harald, a year after Harold’s death at the battle of Hastings, Harald’s body was finally returned to Norway, where it still rests.

This article was co-authored by Craig Bessell.

As in most feudal societies, Vikings farmed their land, growing crops and raising animals to provide for their family. Though their farms were generally small, it is thought that most Viking families would have eaten pretty well, though the seasonality of their diets may have meant that times of plenty were counterbalanced by periods of relative scarcity.

The Viking diet would inevitably vary quite a bit depending on factors like location. Naturally, coastal settlements would have eaten more fish while those with access to woodland were doubtless more likely to hunt for wild game.

How many meals did Vikings eat a day?

The Vikings ate twice a day. Their day meal, or dagmal, was effectively breakfast, served about an hour after rising. Nattmal was served in the evening at the end of the working day.

At night, the Vikings would have typically dined on stewed meat or fish with vegetables and perhaps some dried fruit and honey – all washed down with ale or mead, a strong alcoholic drink made using honey, which was the only sweetener know to the Vikings.

Hedeby Viking Museum, Germany.

Image Credit: Shutterstock

Dagmal would have most likely been composed of leftovers from the previous night’s stew, with bread and fruit or porridge and dried fruit.

Feasts occurred throughout the year to celebrate seasonal and religious festivals like Jól (an old Norse winter celebration), or Mabon (the autumn equinox), as well as celebratory events like weddings and births.

Though the size and splendour of feasts would depend on the wealth of the host, the Vikings generally didn’t hold back on such occasions. Roasted and boiled meats and rich stews accompanied by buttered root vegetables and sweet fruits would have been typical fare. Ale and mead would also have been in generous supply along with fruit wine if the host was wealthy enough to offer it.

Meat

Meat was widely available at all levels of society. Farmed animals would have included cows, horses, oxen, goats, pigs, sheep, chickens and ducks, of which pigs were likely the most common. Animals were slaughtered in November, so it wasn’t necessary to feed them over winter, then preserved.

Game animals included hares, boars, wild birds, squirrels and deer, while especially northern settlements in places like Greenland ate seal, caribou and even polar bear.

Fish

Fermented shark is still eaten in Iceland today. Credit: Chris 73 / Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Photo by Diego Delso via Wikimedia Commons

The Vikings enjoyed a wide variety of fish – both freshwater, such as salmon, trout and eels, and saltwater, like herring, shellfish and cod. They also preserved fish using a number of techniques, including smoking, salting, drying and pickling, and were even known to ferment fish in whey.

Eggs

The Vikings not only ate eggs from domestic animals like chickens, ducks and geese, but they also enjoyed wild eggs. They considered gulls’ eggs, which were collected from clifftops, a particular delicacy.

Crops

The northern climate was best suited to growing barley, rye and oats, which would be used to make numerous staples, including beer, bread, stews and porridge.

The day-to-day bread of choice was a simple flatbread. But the Vikings were resourceful bakers and made a wide variety of breads, utilising wild yeasts and raising agents such as buttermilk and sour milk. Sourdough-style bread was created by leaving flour and water starters to ferment.

Fruit and nuts

Fruit was widely enjoyed thanks to apple orchards and numerous fruit trees, including cherry and pear. Wild berries, including sloe berries, lingon berries, strawberries, bilberries and cloudberries, also played an important part in the Viking diet. Hazelnuts grew wild and were often eaten.

Dairy

The Vikings kept dairy cows and enjoyed drinking milk, buttermilk and whey as well as making cheese, curds and butter.