Widely considered to be one of the greatest artists of all time, his most famous works included ‘the Mona Lisa’, ‘the Last Supper’ and ‘the Vitruvian Man’.
Although he has since been celebrated for his technological ingenuity, Leonardo’s scientific genius largely went undiscovered and unappreciated during his time. As Sigmund Freud wrote:
He was like a man who awoke too early in the darkness, while the others were all still asleep.
Here are 10 surprising facts you (probably) didn’t know about him.
1. His name was not really “Leonardo da Vinci”
Leonardo’s full name at birth was Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci, which means “Leonardo, (son) of ser Piero from Vinci.”
To his contemporaries he was known just as Leonardo or “Il Florentine” – since he lived near Florence.
2. He was an illegitimate child – fortunately
Born in a farmhouse outside the village of Anchiano in Tuscany on 14/15 April 1452, Leonardo was the child of Ser Piero, a wealthy Florentine notary, and an unmarried peasant woman named Caterina.
The possible birthplace and childhood home of Leonardo in Anchiano, Vinci, Italy. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Image Credit: Roland Arhelger, CC BY-SA 4.0
The two had 12 other children with other partners – but Leonardo was the only child they had together.
His illegitimacy meant he was not expected to follow his father’s profession and become notary. Instead, he was free to pursue his own interests and go into the creative arts.
3. He received little formal education
Leonardo was largely self-educated and received no formal education beyond basic reading, writing and mathematics.
His artistic talents were evident from an early age. At aged 14 he began an apprenticeship with the noted sculptor and painter Andrea del Verrocchio, of Florence.
In Verrocchio’s workshop, he was exposed to theoretical training and a wide range of technical skills including metalwork, carpentry, drawing, painting and sculpting.
His earliest known work – a pen-and-ink landscape drawing – was sketched in 1473.
4. His first commissions were never completed
In 1478, Leonardo received his first independent commission: to paint an alterpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in Florence’s Palazzo Vecchio.
In 1481, he was commissioned to paint ‘The Adoration of the Magi’ for the monastery San Donato in Florence.
However he was forced to abandon both commissions when he relocated to Milan to work for the Sforza family. Under the patronage of the Sforzas, Leonardo painted ‘The Last Supper’ in the refectory of the Monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie.
Leonardo would spend 17 years in Milan, leaving only after Duke Ludovico Sforza’s fall from power in 1499.
‘The Baptism of Christ’ (1472–1475) by Verrocchio and Leonardo, Uffizi Gallery. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Image Credit: Andrea del Verrocchio, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
5. He was an accomplished musician
Perhaps predictably for an individual who excelled in everything he tried, Leonardo had a gift for music.
According to his own writings, he believed music to be closely related to the visual arts as it was similarly dependent upon one of the 5 senses.
According to Georgio Vasari, a contemporary of Leonardo’s, “he sang divinely without any preparation.”
He also played the lyre and the flute, often performing at gatherings of the nobility and at the houses of his patrons.
His surviving manuscripts contain some of his original musical compositions, and he invented an organ-viola-harpsichord instrument that only came into being in 2013.
6. His biggest project was destroyed
Leonardo’s most substantial commissioned work was for the Duke of Milan, Ludovico il Moro, called Gran Cavallo or ‘Leonardo’s Horse’ in 1482.
The proposed statue of the Duke’s father Francesco Sforza on horseback was to be more than 25 feet tall and intended to be the largest equestrian statue in the world.
Leonardo spent nearly 17 years planning the statue. But before it was completed, French forces invaded Milan in 1499.
The clay sculpture was used for target practice by the victorious French soldiers, shattering it to pieces.
7. He was a chronic procrastinator
Leonardo was not a prolific painter. Because of his abundance of diverse interests, he would often fail to complete his paintings and projects.
Instead, he would spend his time immersed in nature, conducting scientific experiments, dissecting human and animal bodies, and filling his notebooks with inventions, observations and theories.
Study for ‘The Battle of Anghiari’ (now lost), c. 1503, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Image Credit: Leonardo da Vinci, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
It is thought that a stroke left Leonardo’s right hand paralysed, cutting short his painting career and leaving works such as ‘the Mona Lisa’ unfinished.
As a result, only 15 paintings have been attributed either in whole or in large part to him.
8. His ideas had little influence during the period
Although he was highly respected as an artist, Leonardo’s scientific ideas and inventions gained little traction among his contemporaries.
He made no effort to get his notes published and it was only centuries later that his notebooks – often referred to as his manuscripts and “codices” – were made available to the public.
Because they were kept secret, many of his discoveries had little influence on scientific advancement in the Renaissance period.
9. He was charged with sodomy
In 1476, Leonardo and three other young men were charged with the crime of sodomy in an incident that involved a well-known male prostitute. It was a serious accusation that could have led to his execution.
The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence but in the aftermath Leonardo disappeared, only reemerging in 1478 to take on a commission at a chapel in Florence.
10. He spent his final years in France
When Francis I of France offered him the title of “Premier Painter and Engineer and Architect to the King” in 1515, Leonardo left Italy for good.
It gave him the opportunity to work at leisure while living in a country manor house, Clos Lucé, near the king’s residence in Amboise in the Loire Valley.
Leonardo died in 1519 at the age of 67 and was buried in a nearby palace church.
The church was nearly obliterated during the French Revolution, making it impossible to identify his exact gravesite.
]]>His best-known work, Il Principle (‘The Prince’), later led to his name becoming synonymous with ruthless political machinations.
To this day, the term “Machiavellian” connotes political deceit, scheming and unscrupulousness.
Here are 10 facts about him.
1. He lived during a time of political turmoil
Machiavelli was born on 3 May 1469 in Florence before becoming a senior official in the Florentine Republic.
From 1487 he began working under a banker, until in 1498 he was named the chancellor and the chief executive officer of the government of Florence.
As chancellor, he had responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs during an era of tumultuous political tragedy.
French troops under Charles VIII entering Florence by Francesco Granacci (Credit: Public domain).
In 1494, Italy was invaded by King Charles VIII of France and then later by Spain and Austria, resulting in nearly 400 years of rule by outsiders.
Machiavelli’s thinking was defined by this upheaval. It was his dream that the divided Italian city-states would unite under a strong leader to meet its threats on equal terms.
2. He worked with Leonardo da Vinci
As a senior government official, Machiavelli used his powers to commission Leonardo da Vinci and appointed him Florence’s military engineer in 1502.
Leonardo left his post only 8 months after, however it is believed that the two “seem to have become intimate” when they were both in Florence.
A painting of Leonardo da Vinci by Francesco Melzi
Image Credit: Royal Collection / CC
Some historians believe their relationship had a significant influence on Machiavelli’s political thinking. His writings appear to be rife with idiosyncratic expressions from Leonardo’s notebooks.
3. He was an enemy of the powerful Medici family
The Medici family – who were the de facto rulers of Florence – played a central role to Machiavelli’s life and works.
When the Medicis were ousted from the city in 1494, Machiavelli’s primary concern was their potential return.
To keep them at bay, he oversaw the recruitment and training of an official Florentine militia. However his army was no match for the Medicis, who were supported by Rome’s papal forces.
Machiavelli dedicated ‘The Prince’ to Lorenzo de’ Medici, depicted here by Giorgio Vasari (Credit: Uffizi Gallery).
When the House of Medici retook Florence in 1512, Machiavelli was deprived of office and imprisoned under conspiracy charges.
While in jail, he was subjected to torture by the strappado – where a prisoner would be hung by his wrists behind his back, and then suddenly dropped towards the floor, dislocating the shoulders and tearing the muscles.
4. He wrote ‘The Prince’ to regain his lost status
After losing his job as a diplomat, Machiavelli strove to win the favour of the Medicis.
He retired to his estate and turned to scholarship, devoting his time to studying the ancient Roman philosophers. By the end of 1513, he had completed the first version of the political treatise that he would become known for.
Initially, Machiavelli dedicated ‘The Prince’ to Giuliano de’ Medici, but Giuliano died in 1516. The book was subsequently dedicated to the younger Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici, grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent.
Machiavelli did not live to see if he succeeded; ‘The Prince’ was published in 1532, 5 years after his death at the age of 58.
Engraved portrait of Machiavelli, from the Peace Palace Library’s Il Principe (Credit: Public domain).
5. ‘The Prince’ is based on Cesare Borgia
The name Borgia is synonymous with decadence, treachery and ruthlessness – most exemplified by the daring and bloodthirsty Cesare Borgia (1475-1507).
The illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI, Borgia worked to carve out what he hoped would be a kingdom for himself that would rival Venice and Naples.
Cesare Borgia, as depicted in ‘Portrait of Gentleman’ by Altobello Melone (Credit: Accademia Carrara).
His ambitions and actions attracted the notice of Machiavelli, who spent time as an emissary in Borgia’s court, and who would write long reports about him.
Many historians consider Borgia to be the inspiration for ‘The Prince’. Machiavelli admired Borgia’s daring, treachery and effectiveness in contrast to the frustratingly slow and prudent Florentine republic.
6. Machiavelli was not amoral himself
Statue of Niccolò Macchiavelli by Lorenzo Bartolini (Credit: Jerbulon / CC).
‘The Prince’ may have gained notoriety for its ruthlessness, but Machiavelli believed in a just government. As a civil servant, he had been one of the republic’s staunchest defenders.
Although his treatise openly encouraged politicians to cheat, bribe, threaten and even kill if necessary, he acknowledged that without respect for justice, society would collapse into chaos.
7. ‘The Prince’ was only one of his works
Cover page of 1550 edition of Machiavelli’s Il Principe.
Image Credit: BNCF
Besides ‘The Prince’, Machiavelli also wrote treatises on ‘The Discourses on Livy’, ‘The Art of War’ and ‘Florentine Histories’.
Apart from being a novelist, he was also a translator, poet, playwright and wrote comedies and carnival songs.
His poems included ‘Decennale Primo’ and ‘Decennale Secondo’ and he penned the satirical play La Mandragola (‘The Mandrake’).
8. It was banned by the Pope
Although copies of ‘The Prince’ had been circulated among Machiavelli’s friends, it was not published until after his death, with the permission of Pope Clement VII.
The papacy’s attitude towards his work soon chilled and it was condemned by both the Catholic and Protestant churches.
In 1557, when Pope Paul IV established Rome’s first Index Librorum Prohibitorum (‘Index of Forbidden Books’), he made sure to include ‘The Prince’ for its encouragement of political and moral corruption.
9. He became a theatrical stock character of evil
By the 16th century, Machiavelli’s name had found itself in the English language as an epithet for crookedness.
In Elizabethan theatre, it came to denote a dramatic type: the incorrigible schemer driven by greed and unbridled ambition.
In Christopher Marlowe’s 1589 play ‘The Jew of Malta’, the character of Machiavel says:
I count religion but a childish toy, / And hold there is no sin but ignorance.
In Shakespeare’s 1602 play ‘The Merry Wives of Windsor’, a characters asks:
Am I politic? Am I subtle? Am I a Machiavel?
10. He is considered the father of modern political science
Machiavelli’s ideas had a profound impact on politics throughout the Western world. After 500 years, his legacy continues in political life across the world.
‘The Prince’ was accused of having inspired Henry VIII’s defiance of the papacy. A copy was in the possession of the Spanish king and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
It was later blamed for having incited Queen Catherine de’ Medici to order the massacre of 2,000 rebel Protestants at the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre.
Machiavelli’s tomb in the Santa Croce Church in Florence (Credit: Gryffindor / CC).
He was also said to have directly influenced the founding fathers of the American Revolution.
Machiavelli was the first political writer to separate politics from morality, placing great emphasis on practical strategies over philosophical ideas.
Instead of focusing on what was right or wrong, he considered what needs to be achieved.
]]>Our podcast series Not Just The Tudors shines a light on a fascinating chapter in the history in Renaissance Florence. The astonishing story of Alessandro de’Medici is a tale of assassination, spies and betrayal. But just who was the mixed-race man who rose to become the first Duke of the Florentine Republic?
The Medici family
The Medici were one of the most important families in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Gaining their power and influence through banking, which in itself was funded through their role in the wool trade, they became one of the most important powers in Florence, dominating the city’s governance. By the early 17th century, the Medici had produced 4 popes, 2 queens of France and ruled the newly formed Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
Unsurprisingly, there were plenty of rivalries and power plays within the family: not everyone could have exactly what they wanted.
A series of the most illustrious members of the Medici Family from the workshop of Bronzino.
Image Credit: Public Domain
Ippolito and Alessandro
In the early 16th century, it became clear that Lorenzo II de Medici would die without a legitimate male heir. The only options for the family now were two illegitimate boys – Alessandro, who was probably Lorenzo’s son, and Ippolito, son of Giuliano di Lorenzo de’ Medici.
In 1523, Ippolito’s uncle became Pope Clement VII, and in order to further the interests of the family (as well as for political benefit), he made Ippolito a cardinal. This, in turn, excluded him from the potential line of succession. The only option left to succeed as a Medici ruler of Florence was Alessandro.
What was the issue?
Illegitimacy might have raised a few eyebrows, but it was widely accepted and hardly a barrier to a successful political career or dynastic marriage in the 16th century. More of a problem for Alessandro was that his mother was rumoured to be a servant or a slave in the Medici household, meaning he was of low birth.
To further complicate things, she was also said to be of African descent: Alessandro was nicknamed ‘il Moro’ (the Moor) on account of his swarthy complexion. Whilst racism as we know it did not exist in Renaissance Italy, Alessandro’s obvious ‘otherness’, low birth and illegitimacy were a potent combination for the evoking of disapproval amongst his contemporaries and peers. Despite these issues, they were not big enough to prevent him from being installed as ruler of Florence in 1531, and Duke in 1532.
Bad blood
Ippolito, Alessandro’s cousin, was distinctly unhappy about missing out on the top job. He tried to instigate a coup, before repeatedly and openly talking about assassinating his cousin. Ippolito died in 1535 under mysterious circumstances: some say he contracted malaria, others claim he was poisoned by Alessandro to prevent him going to the Pope and denouncing his rule.
But that was far from the end of Alessandro’s difficulties. The ‘Black Prince of Florence’, as he became known, had a reign marked by intrigue, betrayal, and eventually his own assassination.
Want to learn more about this dramatic chapter of history in Renaissance Florence? Have a listen to Catherine Fletcher on this episode of Not Just the Tudors here:
]]>History of The Rialto Bridge
The first Rialto Bridge was built in 1181 and was a simple wooden structure. It was replaced by a more substantial wooden bridge in 1255, followed by the stone bridge we see today, built between 1588-1591 by Antonio da Ponte following a design competition in the city (where he beat Michelangelo) as the wooden bridge had collapsed in two occasions and been partially burnt down in 1310.
The design of the elegant stone bridge is similar to its predecessors with two inclined ramps that are connected by an arch spanning 28 metres (crossing the narrowest point of the Grand Canal in the heart of Venice) and is made of Istrian stone. It is renowned as an architectural and engineering achievement of the Renaissance.
As The Rialto Bridge was the only place to cross the Grand Canal on foot, it was vital that the bridge could stand up to heavy use and also allow boats to pass underneath.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Rialto Bridge became an important commercial and financial centre in Venice. It was lined with shops and market stalls, making it a bustling hub of activity, and was also an important crossing point for pilgrims on their way to Saint Mark’s Basilica.
The bridge served as the only fixed structure crossing the Grand Canal until the 1850s; prior to that, pedestrian crossings at other locations were done by gondola ferries.
The Rialto Bridge today
The Rialto Bridge was restored in the 20th century and remains an important and functional landmark in Venice, and a symbol of the city’s history and culture.
It is formed of three sets of stairs divided by arcades. The central stairs remain lined with shops and vendors, and are so densely packed that it’s easy to not notice you’re crossing over the Grand Canal. The two other stairs (on the bridge’s north and south sides) offer iconic views of the Grand Canal.
The bridge is a popular tourist attraction, both for those wishing to walk across it as well as those travelling by vaporetto (water bus) or gondola underneath it as they traverse the city.
Getting to The Rialto Bridge
There are two ways to get from St Mark’s Square to The Rialto Bridge – by ferry or foot. By ferry, from Venezia Santa Lucia Station take the Line 1 ferry via Rialto Mercato which takes approximately 16 minutes. The bridge is a 7 minute walk northwest from St Mark’s Square.
]]>1. She was illegitimate
Born on 18 April 1480, Lucrezia Borgia was the daughter of Cardinal Rodrigo de Borgia (who would later go on to be Pope Alexander VI) and his chief mistress, Vannozza dei Cattanei. Importantly – and unlike some of her half-siblings – Rodrigo acknowledged her as his child.
This meant she was permitted an education, and not merely a convent one. Lucrezia grew up in Rome, surrounded by intellectuals and members of the court. She was fluent in Spanish, Catalan, Italian, French, Latin and Greek by the time she was a teenager.
2. She was only 13 at the time of her first marriage
Lucrezia’s education and connections meant she would marry well – in a way that was advantageous to both her family and her prospects. At the age of 10, her hand was officially in matrimony for the first time: in 1492, Rodrigo Borgia was made Pope, and he cancelled Lucrezia’s existing engagement in order to create an alliance through marriage with one of Italy’s most important and well-connected families – the Sforzas.
Lucrezia married Giovanni Sforza in June 1493. Four years later, in 1497, their marriage was annulled: the alliance with the Sforzas was deemed not advantageous enough.
3. Lucrezia’s annulment was tainted with accusations of incest
Giovanni Sforza was furious about the annulment – particularly given it was to be on grounds on non-consummation – and accused Lucrezia of paternal incest. Rumours also swirled that Lucrezia was in fact pregnant at the time of the annulment, hence why she retired to a convent for 6 months during the proceedings. The marriage was eventually annulled in late 1497, on the condition that the Sforzas kept Lucrezia’s original dowry.
Whether there is any truth in this remains somewhat unclear: what is known is that the body of her father’s chamberlain, Pedro Calderon (with whom Lucrezia was accused of having an affair) and one of Lucrezia’s maids were found in the Tiber in early 1498. Similarly, a child was born in the Borgia household in 1497 – a papal bull was issued which formally recognise the child as being of Lucrezia’s brother, Cesare.
4. She was extremely beautiful by the standards of her day
Lucrezia’s allure came not just from her wealthy and powerful family. Contemporaries described her as having long blonde hair, white teeth (not always a given in Renaissance Europe), hazel eyes and a natural grace and elegance.
A full length painting of Lucrezia Borgia in the Vatican
Image Credit: Public Domain
5. Her second husband was murdered – possibly by her own brother
Lucrezia’s second marriage was short-lived. Her father arranged for her to marry Alfonso d’Aragona who was Duke of Bisceglie and Prince of Salerno. Whilst the match conferred titles and status on Lucrezia, it also proved to be something of a love match.
It quickly became clear that shifting Borgia alliances were making Alfonso uneasy: he fled Rome for a period, returning in early 1500. Shortly afterwards, he was brutally attacked on the steps of St Peter’s and later murdered in his own home, probably on the orders of Cesare Borgia – Lucrezia’s brother.
Most believe that if Alfonso was murdered on Cesare’s orders, it was purely political: he had made a new alliance with France and getting rid of the family alliance with Naples that had been forged through marriage was a blunt, if easy, solution. Gossip suggested that Cesare was in love with his sister and was jealous of her blossoming relationship with Alfonso.
6. She was Governor of Spoleto
Unusually for the time, Lucrezia was granted the position of Governor of Spoleto in 1499. The role was usually reserved solely for cardinals, and for Lucrezia as opposed to her husband to be appointed was certainly controversial.
7. Rumours began to taint the Borgias
One of the most lasting rumours that has stuck surrounding Lucrezia was her ‘poison ring’. Poison was viewed as a woman’s weapon, and Lucrezia was said to have a ring in which she stored poison. She could open the catch and quickly drop poison into their drink whilst they were turned the other way.
There is no evidence for Lucrezia poisoning anyone, but the Borgias’ power and privilege meant their enemies were prone to disappearing mysteriously, and they had plenty of rivals in the city. Starting gossip and slander about the family was an easy way to discredit them.
8. Her third marriage was considerably more successful
In 1502, Lucrezia was married – for political reasons – again, this time to Alfonso d’Este, Duke of Ferrara. The pair produced 8 children, 4 of whom survived until adulthood. Brutal and politically astute, Alfonso was also a great patron of the arts, commissioning work by Titian and Bellini most notably.
Lucrezia died in 1519, aged just 39, after giving birth to her 10th and final child.
9. Lucrezia embarked on passionate affairs
Neither Lucrezia nor Alfonso was faithful: Lucrezia embarked on a feverish affair with her brother-in-law, Francesco, Marquess of Mantua – their ardent love letters survive to this day and give a glimpse into their desires.
Later, Lucrezia also had a love affair with the poet Pietro Bembo, which appears to have been somewhat more sentimental than her fling with Francesco.
10. But she was a model Renaissance duchess
Lucrezia and Alfonso’s court was cultured and fashionable – the poet Ariosto described her ‘beauty, virtue, chastity and fortune’, and she won the admiration and respect of the citizens of Ferrara during the excommunication crisis of 1510.
After the unexpected death of Rodrigo, the son from her first marriage to Alfonso d’Aragona, she withdrew to a convent for a period of time, overwhelmed by grief. When she returned to court, she was said to have been more sombre and pious.
The earlier rumours and scandal attached to Lucrezia simply melted away during her lifetime, helped by the death of her scheming, powerful father in 1503, and she was mourned intensely by the people of Ferrara on her death. It was only in the 19th century that her supposed ‘infamy’ and reputation as a femme fatale were constructed.
]]>1. Lorenzo de’ Medici
Lorenzo de’ Medici (1449-1492) was a member of the Medici family, one of the wealthiest European families in history and the de facto rulers of Florence. During the Renaissance, artists were completely reliant on patrons. Although he rarely commissioned work himself, Lorenzo de’ Medici helped connect artists with other patrons.
Artists who enjoyed Lorenzo’s patronage included Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo Buonarroti. Along with being a statesman and major patron of the arts, he also encouraged the development of Renaissance humanism through his inner circle of scholars and philosophers.
2. Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was the very ideal of the Renaissance man – a supremely gifted painter, scientist, inventor and polymath. Da Vinci has been widely regarded as one of the world’s greatest minds, with extraordinary talents that included painting, mathematics, architecture, engineering, botany, sculpture, and human biology.
As an artist, he painted ‘The Last Supper’, ‘The Vitruvian Man’ and the ‘Mona Lisa’, arguably the world’s most famous painting. As an inventor, he designed workable precursors of a diving suit, a robot, and a tank – centuries before they became a reality. As a scientist, he designed the first self-propelled machine in history and described the processes governing friction.
‘Saint John the Baptist’ by Leonardo da Vinci
Image Credit: Leonardo da Vinci, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
3. Michelangelo
Michelangelo (1475–1564) was a sculptor, painter, architect, poet and engineer whose endeavours embodied the spirit of the Renaissance. His greatest works include St Peter’s Basilica – the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture – his frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and the statue of David.
Michelangelo’s artistic legacy is one that lives on as one of the three titans of the Florentine renaissance, alongside da Vinci and Raphael. His works have since exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of art.
4. Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicholaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, economist, diplomat and classics scholar. His most important teaching – that the earth revolved around the sun – placed him in direct opposition to the established teachings of the church.
His heliocentric view of the solar system and universe was the most prominent scientific achievement of the Renaissance age. Without him, much of Galileo’s work would not have been possible.
Copernicus’ publication in 1543 of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (‘On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres’) led to the Copernican Revolution, seen as the starting point of modern astronomy and the Scientific Revolution.
Nicolaus Copernicus portrait from Town Hall in Toruń, 1580
Image Credit: Toruń Regional Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
5. Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), commonly known as Petrarch, was one of the earliest humanists during the early Italian Renaissance and has been called the ‘father of humanism’. A devout Catholic, Petrarch believed that God had given humans their intellectual and creative potential to be used to their fullest.
He argued that classical writings offered moral guidance to reform humanity – a key principle of Renaissance humanism. Petrarch’s rediscovery of Cicero’s letters in 1345 is often credited with initiating the 14th century Renaissance. In the 16th century, Italian scholar Pietro Bembo created the model for the modern Italian language based on Petrarch’s works.
6. Raphael
Up until the late 19th century, Raphael (1483-1520) was considered to be the greatest artist who ever lived – more so than even da Vinci and Michelangelo.
Known for his mastery of depicting human emotions and clarity of form, Raphael produced works that were the cornerstones of Renaissance art.
His best known work is The School of Athens in the Stanza della segnatura (‘Room of the Signatura’) – also known as the Raphael Rooms – in the Vatican palace.
Painted between 1509 and 1511, the Raphael Rooms depicted the harmony and wisdom which Renaissance humanists perceived between Christian teaching and Greek philosophy.
7. Galileo Galilei
Galileo (1564–1642) was perhaps the most influential Renaissance scientist who paved the scientific revolution that later flourished in northern Europe. Often called the ‘father of observational astronomy’, Galilei pioneered the telescope and advocated the heliocentric model of our solar system.
He made key discoveries in both pure fundamental science as well as practical applied science, and in doing so revolutionised our understanding of the world.
8. Michel de Montaigne
Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) was one of the most influential humanists of the French Renaissance. His 1850 Essais (‘Essays’) established the essay as a literary genre.
First published in 1580, the book balances personal storytelling and intellectual knowledge in Montaigne’s signature essay format. His work inspired writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, René Descartes, and Francis Bacon.
Montaigne’s profound writings covered a remarkably modern and diverse range topics including human action, child education and motivation.
9. Niccolo Machiavelli
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a Florentine political philosopher and statesman, whose work Il Principe (‘The Prince’) has earned him an image as an immoral cynic.
In his best-known book, Machiavelli outlined traits that would bolster power and influence in an effective leader. A new prince had to be shrewd, brutal, calculating and – when necessary – utterly immoral. In other words, “the ends justify the means.”
Machiavelli has often been called the father of modern political philosophy and political science. His ideas had a profound impact on political leaders throughout Europe, aided by the new technology of the printing press.
His writings were said to have influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and is notable in political theorists including John Milton, Francis Bacon, Rousseau, Hume, Adam Smith and Descartes.
Portrait of Niccolò Machiavelli
Image Credit: Santi di Tito, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
10. William Shakespeare
While the Italian Renaissance was dominated by the visual arts, the Renaissance in England took place mainly in literature and music. Shakespeare (1564-1616) was a key figure of the English Renaissance.
While he was working in the theatre, the Renaissance was peaking in England. Shakespeare was one of the first playwrights to introduce the new openness and humanism of the movement to the theatre.
One of the most influential writers in the English language, Shakespeare wrote some of the finest and most famous works ever written.
]]>By the first half of the 15th century, the family had risen to become the most important house in Florence and Tuscany – a position they would hold for three centuries.
The founding of the Medici dynasty
The Medici family originated in the agricultural Mugello region of Tuscany. The name Medici means “doctors”.
The dynasty began when Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici (1360–1429) emigrated to Florence to found the Medici Bank in 1397, which would become Europe’s largest and most respected bank.
Using his success in banking, he turned to new lines of commerce – trading spices, silk and fruit. At his death, the Medicis were one of wealthiest families in Europe.
Portrait of Cosimo de’ Medici the Elder. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Image Credit: Peter Paul Rubens, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
As the pope’s bankers, the family quickly acquired political power. In 1434, Giovanni’s son Cosimo de’ Medici (1389-1464) became the first Medici to de facto rule Florence.
The three branches of the Medici family
There were three branches of Medicis that successfully gained power – the line of Chiarissimo II, the line of Cosimo (known as Cosimo the Elder) and the descendants of his brother, who went on to rule as grand dukes.
The House of Medici produced 4 popes – Leo X (1513–1521), Clement VII (1523–1534), Pius IV (1559–1565) and Leo XI (1605).
They also produced two French queens – Catherine de’ Medici (1547–1589) and Marie de’ Medici (1600–1630).
In 1532, the family gained the hereditary title of Duke of Florence. The duchy was later elevated to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, which they ruled until the death of Gian Gastone de’ Medici in 1737.
Cosimo the Elder and his descendants
Sculpture of Cosimo the Elder by Luigi Magi. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Image Credit: Uffizi, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
During Cosimo’s reign, the Medicis gained fame and prestige first in Florence and then across Italy and Europe. Florence prospered.
Because they were part of the patrician class and not the nobility, the Medicis were seen as friends of the common people.
After his death, Cosimo’s son Piero (1416-1469) took over. His son, Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492), would subsequently rule during the pinnacle of the Florentine Renaissance.
Under Cosimo’s rule and that of his son and grandson, Renaissance culture and art flourished in Florence.
The city became the cultural centre of Europe and the cradle of the new humanism.
The Pazzi conspiracy
In 1478, the Pazzi and Salviati families attempted a plot to displace the Medicis with the approval of Pope Sixtus IV, who was an enemy of the Florentine family.
The brothers Lorenzo and Giuliano de’ Medici were attacked during High Mass at Florence Cathderal.
Giuliano was stabbed 19 times, and bled to death on the Cathedral floor. Lorenzo managed to escape, seriously but not fatally wounded.
Most of the conspirators were caught, tortured and executed, hung from the windows of the Palazzo della Signoria. The Pazzi family were banished from Florence, their lands and property confiscated.
The failure of the plot served to strengthen the position of Lorenzo and his family’s rule over Florence.
The fall of the House
Portrait of Cosimo I de’ Medici by Cigoli. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
The last of the great banking Medici line, Piero il Fatuo (“the Unfortunate”), only ruled Florence for two years before being expelled. The Medici Bank collapsed in 1494.
Upon the defeat of the French armies in Italy by the Spanish, the Medicis returned to rule the city in 1512.
Under Cosimo I (1519-1574) – a descendant of Cosimo the Elder’s brother Lodovici – Tuscany was turned into an absolutist nation state.
These later Medicis became more authoritarian in their rule of the region, which led to its decline as a cultural hub.
After the death of Cosimo II in 1720, the region suffered under ineffectual Medici rule.
In 1737 the last Medici ruler, Gian Gastone, died without a male heir. His death ended the family dynasty after almost three centuries.
Control over the Tuscany was passed to Francis of Lorraine, whose marriage to Maria Theresa of Austria sparked the beginning of the reign of the Hapsburg-Lorraine family.
The Medici legacy
Over a period of just 100 years, the Medici family transformed Florence. As unparalleled patrons of the arts, they supported some of the greatest artists of the Renaissance,
Giovanni di Bicci, the first Medici arts patron, encouraged Masaccio and commissioned Brunelleschi for the reconstruction of the Basilica di San Lorenzo in 1419.
Cosimo the Elder was a dedicated patron to painters and sculptors, commissioning art and buildings by Brunelleschi, Fra Angelico, Donatello and Ghiberti.
Sandro Botticelli, The Birth of Venus (c. 1484–1486). Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Image Credit: Sandro Botticelli, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
A poet and humanist himself, his grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent supported the work of Renaissance artists such as Botticelli, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.
Pope Leo X commissioned works from Raphael, while Pope Clement VII hired Michelangelo to painter the alter wall of the Sistine Chapel.
In architecture, the Medici were responsible for the Uffizi Gallery, St Peter’s Basilica, Santa Maria del Fiore, Boboli Gardens, the Belvedere, the Medici Chapel and Palazzo Medici.
With the Medici Bank, the family introduced a number of banking innovations which are still in use today – the idea of a holding company, double-entry bookkeeping and lines of credit.
Finally in science, the Medici are remembered for the patronage of Galileo, who tutored multiple generations of the Medici children – for whom he named the four largest moons of Jupiter.
]]>In 1482, Da Vinci wrote a letter to Ludovico Il Moro Sforza, Duke of Milan, making a number of claims about innovative weapons of war, also outlining a rough design for an ‘armoured vehicle’. With a conical shape to deflect enemy fire, interior wheels for movement and holes for an array of cannons, Da Vinci’s armoured vehicle certainly bears similarities to the modern tank.
But Da Vinci’s ‘tank’ wasn’t without its flaws. Modern experts predict it would have been largely immovable due to its weight and that the cannon would have been wildly impractical to use in conflict.
Here’s the history of Da Vinci’s armoured vehicle.
Genius in the service of war
Even a cursory perusal of Da Vinci’s famous notebooks reveals an endlessly curious mind buzzing with ingenious ideas, many of which seem to prefigure much later inventions. Leonardo’s “aerial screw” anticipated the invention of the helicopter, 437 years before the first helicopter took flight, his designs for the first diving suit employ principles that are still in use today and his self-propelled cart concept, which featured braking and pre-programmable steering systems, predicted the car. It’s no exaggeration to say that much of Leonardo’s extraordinary body of work was hundreds of years ahead of its time.
Leonardo’s intellectual curiosity was seemingly limitless, but his motivations weren’t purely cerebral. Nor was he averse to trading on his genius. Leonardo’s research required the backing of powerful and wealthy patrons, and he was pragmatic enough to realise that his ingenuity might be served most profitably in a military context. Given the turbulent power struggles that consumed Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, it’s not hard to see how he came to such a conclusion.
It’s clear from a famous 1482 letter to Ludovico Il Moro Sforza, Duke of Milan and one of Italy’s most powerful military leaders, that Leonardo had no qualms about applying his talents to warfare. The letter, which reads like a pitch, offers Sforza a “brochure of military hardware” and refers to a variety of ‘secrets’ that would dramatically enhance the duke’s military powers.
Leonardo’s armoured tank can be found in the Codex Arudel alongside a Scythed Chariot
Image Credit: Leonardo da Vinci via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Among numerous claims, Leonardo refers to “certain types of cannon” that will “cause great terror to the enemy, and they will bring great loss and confusion…” as well as “methods for destroying any fortress or redoubt even if it is founded upon solid rock…”
He also promises “armoured cars, totally unassailable, which will penetrate the ranks of the enemy with their artillery, and there is no company of soldiers so great that it can withstand them”.
Leonardo’s bold proposal advertises all manner of military innovations, many of which, including his “armoured cars”, can be found in his notebooks. There’s no evidence that these machines were ever physically realised and it certainly feels like Leonardo’s imagination was getting ahead of itself in his letter to Sforza. Nonetheless, Leonardo’s irrepressible ingenuity is certainly in evidence, and his proto-tank is not without promise.
Leonardo’s armoured vehicle
For all the bravado of his letter to Sforza, Leonardo’s armoured vehicle design, though undoubtedly innovative, is fundamentally flawed. His ‘covered wagon’ design, more often described by modern commenters as ‘the tank’, dates from 1487. Some believe that its basic mechanical flaws can be attributed to Leonardo’s inexperience at the time; later work certainly suggests that he went on to develop a more complete understanding of gear mechanics.
The design features a metal reinforced wooden conical cover, reminiscent of a turtle shell, with slanting angles designed to deflect enemy fire. An array of 16 light cannons would protrude around the perimeter and the vehicle would be propelled by a crank, to be operated by four men.
An interactive prototype of Leonardo’s ‘tank’ is displayed in the Leonardo Interactive Museum in Florence
Image Credit: Leonardo Interactive Museum via Wikimedia Commons / Creative Commons
There are numerous flaws in Leonardo’s design. Most fundamentally, the gears are located in a reversed order so that any movement on one crank would cancel out the other, thus immobilising the vehicle. Some scholars believe that such a basic mechanical error must have been intentional – an act of sabotage that might reflect either Leonardo’s pacifism or an attempt to protect his design.
Additionally, the armoured car’s wheels are insufficient to support the weight of its heavy armoured enclosure, while the radial array of cannons, though intimidating, would have likely proved imprecise in targeting enemy troops. Even the innovative conical cover has been deemed functionally problematic and difficult to manufacture en masse.
Ultimately, Leonardo’s armoured car design is just as fanciful as some of the claims he made to Sforza, but perhaps this was the point. The design was never destined to be realised and used on the battlefield, but it did succeed in presenting an intimidating fantasy that would have served Sforza’s political ambitions. Even if it’s a functional non-starter, Leonardo’s proto-tank is an ingenious concept and would have worked as a symbol of unprecedented military potency in 15th-century Italy.
]]>Below are 5 things that you (probably) never knew about Cesare Borgia.
1. Cesare is the only man to ever quit the college of cardinals
Following the murder of his brother in 1497, Cesare Borgia became the sole Borgia heir. The problem was, he was a Cardinal, and Cardinals couldn’t have legitimate heirs. This was a problem for Pope Alexander VI, who wanted his family to start a dynasty and go down in history.
Realising this, Cesare and Alexander came to the agreement that the former would be better off out of the Church and in a secular role – something that Cesare would have been very pleased with. He’d never liked being in the Church and wasn’t really a big believer in God anyway.
Cesare Borgia leaves the Vatican (1877)
Image Credit: Giuseppe Lorenzo Gatteri, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Cesare made his case to the College of Cardinals who, surprisingly, were against his leaving. It was only when Pope Alexander threatened them that a small majority voted in favour of Cesare’s resignation. He cast off his crimson vestments, only to become one of the most feared warlords of his day.
2. Cesare (probably) didn’t kill his brother
On 14 June 1497, Juan Borgia went missing after attending a dinner party at his mother’s house. As he left the party with his brother and uncle, he met with a strange, masked man. It was the last time anyone would see him alive.
The next morning, when it was discovered that Juan hadn’t come home, people didn’t immediately start to worry. It was assumed that he’d spent the night with one of his amours. But as the day wore on, Pope Alexander started to panic.
The panic got worse when, on 16 June, a boatman named Giorgio Schiavi stepped forward and claimed that he’d seen a body thrown into the river close to his boat. A search of the Tiber was ordered and around midday a body was found covered in stab wounds. It was Juan Borgia. But who had killed him?
It hadn’t been a robbery. He still had a full purse hung at his belt. Rumour swirled about the Vatican as to who could have done the deed – Giovanni Sforza, his little brother Jofre or his wife Sancia. Whoever it was, the search for his killer was shelved just a week later.
Pope Alexander VI
Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons
Cesare’s name wasn’t mentioned until almost a year later, in Venice. Interestingly, these rumours were started by friends of the Orsini family, whom Juan had managed to make enemies of when laying siege to many of their castles. Not only that, but the head of the family had been locked away in the Castel Sant Angelo. It seems likely that the Orsini would have wanted revenge, and what better way than killing the Pope’s favourite son?
3. Incest – what incest?
There is actually no solid proof that Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia were ever in an incestuous relationship. The whole thing is based on nothing but a rumour started by Lucrezia’s first husband, Giovanni Sforza. Why would Sforza say such a thing? The answer is very simple – he was angry.
Pope Alexander VI and Cesare Borgia had orchestrated a divorce between Lucrezia and Sforza when he had ceased to be useful to them. The excuse given for the divorce was that Sforza was impotent – despite his previous wife having died in childbirth! Humiliated, Sforza said that the only reason the Pope wanted a divorce was so he could keep his daughter for himself. It was assumed that he meant sexually, and enemies of the family ran with it.
4. Cesare was a master of disguise
On 30 January 1495, Cesare Borgia proved to everyone just how wily he could be. At the demand of King Charles VIII of France, Cesare had accompanied him on his journey towards Naples, basically as a hostage. They arrived at Velletri on 30 November and prepared to camp there for the night. The next morning, Cesare was gone.
When Charles received the news that Cesare had escaped dressed as a groom, he was incandescent with rage screaming, “all Italians are dirty dogs, and the Holy Father is as bad as the worst of them!” It is said that Cesare rode so fast after his escape that he was able to spend the night in Rome.
Profile portrait of Cesare Borgia in the Palazzo Venezia in Rome, c. 1500–10
Image Credit: After Bartolomeo Veneto, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
5. The men who killed Cesare had no idea who he was
Cesare Borgia lost his life on 12 March 1507, in the woods around Viana in Navarre. Whilst attempting to suppress a rebellion against his brother-in-law, King John of Navarre, Cesare had ridden out of the town during a rainstorm, expecting to be followed by his men. They’d taken one look at the weather and turned back.
He was surrounded by the enemy and stabbed to death with lances, the killing blow being beneath his armpit. The problem was that they had been ordered to capture the infamous Cesare Borgia alive – but hadn’t recognised the man who had ridden out in the storm. They left him to bleed out on the ground and stripped him of his armour, covering his modesty with a tile.
It was only when Cesare’s squire was shown the armour, and the lad burst into tears, that they realised who they had killed.
Samantha Morris studied archaeology at the University of Winchester and it was there, whilst working on a dissertation about the battlefield archaeology of the English Civil War, that her interest in the Italian Renaissance began. Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia is her first book for Pen & Sword.
As in the Classical world, Renaissance architecture was characterised by the harmony between human and mathematical proportions.
Key architectural elements of Renaissance buildings included columns, pilasters, pediments, entablatures, arches, and domes.
The three key Renaissance architects were Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, and Andrea Palladio.
Here are 10 key examples of Italian Renaissance architecture.
1. St Peter’s Basilica
Designed by Alberti, Raphael, Bramante, Michelangelo, and Bernini, St Peter’s Basilica was perhaps the most renowned work of Renaissance architecture.
Its artistry, architectural grandeur and sheer mass cemented the status of Rome as the home of Christianity.
Its iconic dome, designed by Michelangelo, is the tallest in the world.
Inside, St Peters holds some of the most beautiful examples of Renaissance sculpture, including Michelangelo’s Pieta (1500) and the baldachin by Bernini over the main altar.
2. Duomo Santa Maria del Fiore
Duomo Santa Maria del Fiore. Image credit: RossHelen / Shutterstock.com
Image Credit: RossHelen / Shutterstock.com
Structurally, Florence Cathedral belongs to the Gothic style. Its dome, however, was a forerunner of Renaissance architecture.
The idea and plan for the entire building had been conceived in 1293, before the Renaissance period, however the technology to complete the dome did not yet exist.
It was not until Fillipo Brunelleschi that the Cathedral was finally given a dome, more than a century later.
Brunelleschi came up with a daring approach to vault the dome space without any scaffolding by using a double shell with a space in between.
With over 4 million bricks, a diameter 45.52m and height of 90m, it was the largest dome in the world until 1881.
3. Basilica of Santa Maria Novella
Santa Maria Novella was the first great basilica in Florence and one of the most well-known examples of early Renaissance architecture in Italy.
Its elegant and harmonious marble facade was created by Leon Battista Alberti, who combined the ideals of humanist architecture, proportion and classically inspired detailing.
The church holds frescoes by masters of the early Renaissance, including Masaccio’s ‘The Holy Trinity’.
4. Tempietto del Bramante
Tempietto del Bramante, May 2022. Image credit: Teet Ottin
Image Credit: Teet Ottin
The tiny, round temple by Donato Bramante sits inside the courtyard of the church of San Pietro in Montorio in Rome, on the spot where St Peter was crucified.
A small commemorative tomb, the Tempietto (“small temple”) is considered a masterpiece of High Renaissance Italian architecture and thought to be the prototype of St Peter’s Basilica.
5. Palazzo Pitti
The Pitti Palace was first built for the Pitti family and designed by Brunelleschi and built by his pupil Luca Fancelli.
In 1549, it was bought by the Medici family and became the chief residence of the ruling families of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.
It was later used as a power base by Napoleon in the late 18th century and briefly served as the principal royal palace of the newly united Italy.
6. Palazzo Vecchio
View of the Palazzo Vecchio. Image credit: givaga / Shutterstock.com
Image Credit: givaga / Shutterstock.com
The Palazzo Vecchio was the main symbol of civil power for the city of Florence – the cradle of the Italian Renaissance.
The Renaissance masters Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were commissioned to create the murals the ‘Battle of Anghiari’ and ‘Battle of Cascina’.
The so-called Quartieri Monumentali hold artworks by Michelangelo, Giorgio Vasari and Donatello.
7. Basilica of San Lorenzo
Brunelleschi was commissioned to design a replacement of the earlier Romanesque church. However the building was not completed until after his death, and not entirely according to his designs.
It is nonetheless still seen as one of the best examples of Renaissance architecture, featuring architecture and art by Michelangelo and the final works by Donatello.
The basilica is the burial places of all the principal members of the Medici family from Cosimo il Vecchio to Cosimo III.
8. Ospedale degli Innocenti
Ospedale degli Innocenti (“Hospital of the Innocents”) was designed by Brunelleschi and originally intended as a children’s orphanage.
Brunelleschi arranged the refectory, cloisters, dormitories, infirmary, nurses, rooms and porticoes to create a harmonious and rational balance.
9. Biblioteca Marciana
Daylight view to Marciana Library facade and Columns of San Marco and San Todaro from Saint Mark’s square, 03 April 2017. Image credit: FrimuFilms / Shutterstock.com
Image Credit: FrimuFilms / Shutterstock.com
Located in Venice’s St Mark’s Square, the Biblioteca Marciana is a masterpiece of Jacopo Sansovino and a key example of Venetian Renaissance architecture.
One of the earliest surviving public libraries, the biblioteca still holds one of the most impressive collections of classical texts in the world.
10. Basilica of Sant’Andrea, Mantua
One of the most important works of 15th century Renaissance architecture in Northern Italy, the Basilica of Sant’Andrea is considered one of Alberti’s most complete works.
Modelled on the Roman triumphal arch, the basilica’s facade is defined by a large central arch flanked by Corinthian pilasters.
]]>