In History Hit documentary Rome’s Disaster, Tristan Hughes heads to Germany to investigate some of the worst days in Roman military history which unfolded in 9 AD. At the Varus Battle Museum, named for the humbled Roman commander, Tristan gets hands-on with archaeology from the battle.

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As the Romans fell, the battle sites were looted by their attackers who picked the fields for valuables. Fortunately for us, some Roman artefacts were left behind.

“We have about 5-6,000 Roman finds, 2,000 coins, a lot of bones,” explains museum managing director Stefan Burmeister.

“We have recovered about an area of 50 square kilometres. Most finds come from the core area here in the museum park. We do a lot of excavations and every time we open the soil, it’s like a spring. Things come up.”

Among the human remains is the top of a human skull with a large hole and indications of a mortal sword blow. Their identity, however, remains anonymous – for now.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

“We have lots of bones. Of course, we know they are all male, very strong stature, between 20 and 40 years of age. We just started a genomic project, and perhaps in one or two years time, we will know more about the ancestry and if they come as Romans or come from the Mediterranean, or if it’s a Germanic warrior.”

Getting closer to the Battle of Teutoburg

Despite lacking concrete proof that the area near the museum was the site of the famous battle, there is good evidence.

“We have lots of coins, 2,000 coins, and they all tell a story and they bring us close to the event,” says Burmeister.

One coin in particular, made from copper and perhaps the value of a glass of wine, displays a unique counter-stamp.

“This is the Varus counter-stamp. It’s a V-A-R. And this was stamped in the time when Varus was commander of the Legion of the Rhine. So this must have been stamped in the years 7 to 9 AD.”

Other, more precious, personal items have also been recovered from the battlefield, including two golden finger rings with high quality, semi-precious stones. Both depict mythological themes. One depicts Silenus, a god of drunkenness, and the other the winged horse Pegasus.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

These styles of rings were worn by Roman men and women. In modern terms, however, these rings correspond to the smallest female sizes.

“We know that in the baggage train, the soldiers had their families with them, women and children,” explains Burmeister. “And I think with these two rings, we have good evidence of these families accompanying the army.”

Not only were these rings originally crafted for someone originating from thousands of miles away. They highlight how women and children were present at the battle as well as fighting men. The rings also suggest that they got caught up in the carnage, too.

“They were caught, perhaps killed, we don’t know,” says Burmeister. “In the bones we only have men. We know from other historians that 30-40 years later, the Romans bought the last survivors.”

From human remains to gold rings, the archaeology unearthed at Kalkriese is providing a huge range of information about the battle. But perhaps one artefact personifies this massacre more than any other.

A Roman cavalry mask made from iron and coated in silver and depicting a human face, used more for parades than actual battle, is a unique survivor from Teutoburg. We’ll never know what happened to the Roman who wore the mask, but more likely than not he suffered a similar fate to many of his comrades, either killed or captured by the Germans during the later stages of this battle.

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In History Hit documentary The Jordan: A River Through Time, historian Dan Snow visits a site which has long been associated with early Christianity and the making of mosaics.

It is still possible to find artists carefully crafting in stone here, continuing a tradition stretching back millennia and exemplified by one incredible Byzantine-era mosaic in particular.

This is the so-called Madaba Map, the oldest known map of the Biblical Middle East.

The Jordan: A River Through Time

Image Credit: History Hit

“130 years ago workmen were clearing away the ground here to rebuild Saint George’s Church when they uncovered something extraordinary under the floor,” says Dan.

“Pieces of small coloured tile began to emerge. Bit by bit, they revealed a large mosaic. But it wasn’t a pattern or a picture. They discovered a map, complete with towns, seas and rivers, showing this whole region dating back nearly 1,500 years.”

The astonishing map is much more than just an atlas. “It doesn’t just show where places are in the physical space in relation to each other, but the importance of the spiritual dimension as well.”

“This is how early Christians saw their world, how they understood their place within it, and the centrality of their faith.”

“You can see the Dead Sea looming very large with the ships riding its waves,” explains Dan. “And there, just to the west of it we have the ancient city, the holy city itself, Jerusalem, depicted disproportionately large compared to other places on the map.”

It is possible to pick out individual buildings on the map. “You can see the ancient walled city’s Damascus Gate. Next to Damascus Gate stands the dark column that once supported the statue of Emperor Hadrian. Moving further into the city, there’s a long colonnaded main street, or cardo. Prominent on the map are Jerusalem’s principal churches, including the large new Church of Saint Mary. Tucked against the city walls in the northeast is the Church of the Sheep Pool.”

“This is my idea of heaven”

“Right next to the main street stands the most important of them all. In Byzantine times it was called the Church of the Resurrection, but it’s now known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, where it’s believed Jesus’s body was laid to rest after crucifixion. Still a place of devotion, 1,500 years after this map was made.”

The map teems with details about the places that mattered to the Christians who lived in Madaba in Byzantine times. To the south Bethlehem can be seen, and elsewhere the names of Biblical places and tribes.

The Nile flows in the west and on the Mediterranean coast the port of Gaza is visible. On the River Jordan itself lies the point where Jesus Christ was baptised.

“As someone who is obsessed with both maps and history, this is my idea of heaven,” says Dan in the film. “It is as instructive as it is beautiful. It tells us about the world of the early Christians, literally where everything was, but also where they saw their place within it.”

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It is the subject of History Hit film The Jordan: A River Through Time (released 26 September) presented by historian Dan Snow, who begins his exploration of the early centuries of Christianity at Mount Nebo in modern Jordan.

From Mount Nebo, a prominent hill 700 metres above sea level, a vast panorama of the surrounding landscape is revealed – including its cherished, ancient features.

“People talk about the Holy Land,” says Dan Snow in the film. “Well, this is it. I’m looking down at the geography of this region, but we’re also looking at history just over there in those clouds.”

The Jordan: A River Through Time

Image Credit: History Hit

On a clear day, Jerusalem is visible 30 miles away. Meanwhile to the south is Bethlehem, and before them is the Dead Sea and the green fields of the Jordan River valley. Should you follow the valley north, you would arrive at the Sea of Galilee, also known as Lake Tiberias.

Provided the conditions are right, Jericho, one of the oldest cities in the world with evidence of human settlement dating back 12,000 years, can be seen from Mount Nebo.

“What a place to get a sense of the geography, the history and the interlocking religions of this region.”

The Jordan: A River Through Time

Image Credit: History Hit

Mount Nebo is a site closely connected with the Old Testament and the story of Moses, Dan explains.

“And this really is the perfect standpoint. This is where Moses was brought and shown the promised land on the far bank of the Jordan for the first time shortly before his death.”

“Mount Nebo’s connection with Moses drew pilgrims here, particularly as the Roman Empire adopted Christianity in the 4th century and morphed into what we call the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, with its capital in Constantinople.”

An astonishing window into rural life

The church on top of Mount Nebo contains extraordinary pictorial evidence of what this region was like when Byzantine Christianity flourished there 1,500 years ago. Inside the church is a remarkably preserved mosaic which depicts rural life in this region in the 6th century AD.

The Jordan: A River Through Time

Image Credit: History Hit

“It was commissioned by a couple of imperial administrators for this important religious site, this place of pilgrimage,” Dan explains. “It shows beautiful fruit trees, a range of animals and hunting. You get a man on horseback attacking a wild boar with a dog. A couple of figures are fighting lions. One person is just resting, pondering beneath the fruit tree.”

“And at the bottom you have these figures that are dressed and shown to be from elsewhere: a dark skinned African taking an ostrich on a leash, and perhaps someone from Phrygia, someone from Anatolia, with a spotty camel and a zebra.”

“This is an astonishing window into what rural life was like in this holy land 1,500 years ago.”

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Nestled within the mountains, Petra was strategically located to collect water from rainfall and natural springs. Surrounded by arid desert, the Nabataeans utilized the natural topography to create a sophisticated system for capturing and distributing water throughout the city. The Greek geographer Strabo once recorded that Petra abounded with water sources, and archaeological evidence supports this claim. Remnants of the complex water system can still be found all around Petra, if you know where to look.

One of the most iconic areas of Petra is the Siq, a winding canyon leading to the famous Treasury. Here, you can see a deep channel carved into the rock—a reminder of where water once flowed. Imagine travelers walking through this narrow passage, hearing the trickling of water as it flowed through the channels alongside them. This auditory experience would have been a stark contrast to the harsh silence of the desert, creating a sense of wonder as they approached the city. Archaeologist Matthew Vincent remarks

You’re walking through this canyon and to your side. You would have heard the trickling of water flowing down this channel.

The Water System in Petra allowed them to become a super power.

Image Credit: History Hit

Tristan then explains how the Nabataeans engineered an extensive water system consisting of over 125 miles of channels, pipes, and cisterns. It is estimated that this system could provide up to eight liters of water per person per day. This not only ensured the survival of Petra’s inhabitants but also transformed the city into an oasis of lush gardens, orchards, and ponds. Vincent tells Tristan how a land where water is synonymous with power, the Nabataeans had achieved something extraordinary: they made Petra a fertile paradise in an otherwise unforgiving landscape.

It’s been estimated it could provide up to eight liters of water per inhabitants per day…[and made Petra] a city full of gardens, orchards and ponds.

Visitors to Petra today often think of it as a city of the dead, with its towering tombs and silent monuments. But in its prime, Petra was a city full of life. The sound of water would have filled the air, as it does in other historical cities like the Alhambra in Granada. Petra’s water system wasn’t just functional—it was a symbol of power and prosperity. Walking through the Siq, one would be surrounded by greenery, pools, and baths—a far cry from the desolation of the surrounding desert.

…imagine you’ve just spent two months in the desert on your camels, moving your goods from here. You’re hot, you’re tired, you haven’t showered or bathe for who knows how long….But you get in here and all of a sudden there’s a flex…there’s a power, there’s saying like we are people who not only, control the land control trade routes, we control water.

For travelers who had spent months crossing the desert on camelback, Petra would have been a welcome respite. Hot and exhausted, they would enter this vibrant city, where the Nabataeans’ mastery over water was on full display. It was more than just an oasis; it was a statement of power. The Nabataeans controlled the land, the trade routes, and perhaps most importantly, the water. Their skill in harnessing this life-giving resource is what made Petra a thriving metropolis in the midst of a barren desert, and what continues to captivate visitors to this day.

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Ancient Greek philosophers used paradoxes for all sorts of reasons, from sharpening their dialectical skills and showing philosophical opponents were talking nonsense to serious philosophical inquiry – but also for fun.

Some paradoxes were lethal. Philetas of Cos’s epitaph tells us he died tormented by the “liar paradox”. And according to one biographer, Diodorus Cronus killed himself in 284 BC after failing to solve a paradox put to him by fellow philosopher Stilpo of Megara.

These stories are fanciful, but they point to something maddeningly true about paradoxes: there cannot be a single, obvious solution. Sometimes there is no good solution. Sometimes there are too many good solutions. Paradoxes point to conceptual glitches or bugs. How to fix these bugs, or whether they can be fixed, is rarely obvious.

The three paradoxes that follow are some of the best-known examples from Ancient Greece.

1. The liar paradox

“This sentence is false.” Philosophers call that the “liar sentence”. Is it true? If you say “yes, the liar sentence is true”, then things are as it says – yet the liar sentence says it is false.

On the other hand, suppose you say “no, the liar sentence is false”. This means things are not as the liar sentence says. But this is exactly what it says, so in this sense the liar sentence is true.

In short, there are good reasons to say both that the sentence is true and that it is false. Yet no sentence can be both true and false.

This paradox was invented by the philosopher Eubulides of Miletus, who was famous for his paradoxes, in the 4th century BC. His own formulation has been lost, and what I give here is my reconstruction.

The liar paradox alienates us from everyday notions like truth, falsehood and self-referential language. But it also calls into question the idea, presupposed by question-and-answer dialectic (dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject), that every question can be answered “yes” or “no”. It seems there are good reasons to answer both “yes” and “no” to some questions.

Some philosophers have concluded this means that both “yes” and “no” are good answers to the question “is the liar sentence true?”. They call this a “glut” of good answers. To apply the liar paradox to your life, when you ask or are asked questions, ask yourself: is there more than one right answer?

2. The horns paradox

Have you lost your horns? If you answer “yes”, you must have had horns that you have now lost. If you say “no”, then you have horns that you have not lost. Either way you answer, you suggest you had horns – but that is clearly false.

Questions are a key part of philosophy. But they’re also key to how we get information from other people. The liar paradox highlights that some questions have a more than one good answer. The horns paradox highlights another problem – questions have presuppositions.

If I ask “have you stopped eating meat?”, then I presuppose you no longer eat meat, but that you used to. These questions look like they should have a “yes” or “no” answer, but in fact there is a gap because we could deny the presupposition.

When you ask questions, or are asked questions, first ask yourself: what is being presupposed?

A billy goat with long horns, wood engraving.

Image Credit: Wellcome Collection / Public Domain

3. The sorites paradox

Here are 10,000 grains of sand. Do I have a heap? Yes, of course. I remove a grain, so now I have 9,999 grains. Do I have a heap? Yes. I remove another grain so I have 9,998. Do I have a heap? Yes.

Losing a single grain does not affect whether I have a heap. But reiterating this 9,997 more times, I have one grain. That should be a heap, but of course it is not. You could argue both that one grain is a heap, and that it is not. But nothing can be both a heap and not a heap.

Another of Eubulides’ greatest hits, the sorites (the “heaper”), uses a heap as an example. But it also heaps question upon question.

This paradox challenges us because some concepts have fuzzy edges. When we plug these fuzzy concepts into a question-and-answer dialectic, there are clear yes-or-no answers at the start and end of the sequence. Ten thousand grains is clearly a heap and one grain clearly is not. But there are no clear yes or no answers for some region in the middle.

The liar paradox suggests there might be gluts of good answers to yes or no questions; the horns that there might be gaps, where neither “yes” nor “no” is the correct answer. But the sorites shows that there may be gaps that come and go, with fuzzy-edged concepts. But how many of our concepts have fuzzy edges? And do fuzzy concepts track a fuzzy world?

Paradoxes highlight glitches in commonplace, everyday activities: asserting truths, asking questions, and describing objects. Thinking carefully about this is fun, certainly. But paradoxes should also make us sensitive to whether every apparently good question has exactly one good answer: some questions have more, some have none.

Matthew Duncombe is Associate Professor in Philosophy at the University of Nottingham.

Joining Tristan Hughes on The Ancients, the consultant on Ridley Scott’s Gladiator and Amazon Prime’s Those About to Die (in which he even has a cameo) explains that deaths, when they happened, more often followed later from injuries.

“Combat sports were very violent,” says Mariotti. “And gladiatorial combat is part of that pantheon of sports.”

However the use of weapons made it particularly dangerous. “One of the reasons they don’t wear tunics is because the linen or the wool getting stuck in a wound would kill you [from] an infection.”

Those About to Die

Image Credit: Those About to Die / NBCU

“But what we do find from modern forensics on gladiatorial skeletons is that these guys, majoritively, have medical care, so they have wounds that are then healed. So you’ve not only got a doctor that’s healing you, but you’re also paying for the time that the injured can recover. Because we see from the bones that they actually physically recover even from medical amputations.”

“There are certainly moments where gladiators were expected to, to fight to the death. But I think they’re an absolute rarity.”

Mariotti emphasises that in the arena it took skill not to kill an opponent.

“There were set rules, the training was important because combat, especially with weaponry, instigates ‘fight or flight’.”

“You’ve got the adrenaline pumping, you’ve got the noise, you’re wearing a helmet and this noise is reverberating, the discomfort. And yet they had the ability to stop at the right moment and not kill their opponents, because most of the time they didn’t kill their opponents.”

Mariotti wastes no time debunking other gladiator myths. (Did gladiators fight animals? No, but beast hunts did happen, just as the preserve of hunting specialists.) Find out more when you stream this filmed episode of The Ancients on History Hit.

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In our documentary, Medusa with Natalie Haynes, we ventured to the beautiful Greek island of Corfu with classicist Natalie Haynes to discover the roots of the extraordinary myth of Medusa and investigate sites closely connected – including Corfu’s spectacular Gorgon pediment, a gigantic early image of Medusa that once protected a magnificent Archaic era temple to Artemis.

The Gorgons have captured the imagination of storytellers, artists, and scholars for centuries. To understand their origin and significance, one must delve into the depths of Greek mythology and the ancient poem Theogony by the ancient Greek poet Hesiod.

Hesiod’s Theogony and the birth of the Gorgons

Gorgons were a popular image in Greek mythology, appearing in the earliest of written records of ancient Greek religious beliefs, including the two hugely influential epic poems of ancient Greece – Homer’s The Illiad and The Odyssey. Here they were depicted as a terrifying head on the shield of Greek warrior, Agamemnon, or a monster of the underworld.

However, it was Hesiod’s Theogony that serves as a foundational text in Greek mythology, providing insights into the genealogy and origins of divine beings, and it was here that the origins of the Gorgons and their significance was explained.

According to Hesiod, the Gorgons were born from the union of the sea deities Phorcys and Ceto. Phorcys, a primordial sea god, and Ceto, a sea monster, were parents to a myriad of monstrous offspring, including the three Gorgon sisters: Stheno (the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer, or of the wide sea), and Medusa (the queen).

The Gorgon sisters were said to occupy a liminal space; their parents are sea creatures, they have wings, but dwelt on land – said to be on the farthest side of the western ocean, which some believe refers to Libya.

Medusa, the mortal Gorgon

Among the Gorgons, Medusa occupies a central role in Greek mythology. 

After two gods had vied to be the protector of Athens – with the sea god Poseidon offering the sea, and Athena, goddess of wisdom, warfare, and handicraft, offering olive trees – Athens picked Athena.

Originally a priestess in the temple of Athena, Medusa’s life took a tragic turn when she caught the eye of Poseidon, who raped her within the sacred walls of Athena’s temple, leading to the goddess’s wrath. As a punishment for violating her sacred space, Athena punished Medusa, turning Medusa’s hair into snakes and giving her a gaze that could turn mortals to stone.

The iconography of Medusa is striking – a creature with a monstrous countenance, wings, and a head adorned with live serpents. This transformation not only punished Medusa but also served as a potent symbol of divine retribution in Greek mythology.

‘Perseus with the Head of Medusa’ by Antonio Canova(1757 – 1822) – in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Ad Meskens; sculpture Antonio Canova / CC BY-SA 3.0

Perseus and the quest for Medusa’s head

The narrative takes a turn with the introduction of Perseus. In a classic hero’s quest, Perseus, son of Zeus, is tasked with the perilous mission of beheading Medusa – the only mortal Gorgon. Equipped with gifts from the gods – a reflective shield from Athena, winged sandals from Hermes, and a sword from Hephaestus – Perseus embarks on this daunting mission.

Guided by divine assistance, Perseus successfully decapitates Medusa without directly facing her gaze. The severed head, however, retained its petrifying power, serving as a potent weapon in subsequent mythological tales.

Symbolism and interpretations

The Gorgons, particularly Medusa, hold rich symbolic meanings in Greek mythology. One interpretation sees Medusa as a representation of divine wrath and the consequences of violating sacred spaces. The transformation from a beautiful priestess to a monstrous Gorgon with snakes in her hair becomes a cautionary tale of the wrath of the gods.

Moreover, Medusa’s gaze turning individuals to stone can be seen as a metaphor for the inevitability of death. The petrification serves as a powerful reminder of mortality, emphasising the boundary between the mortal and divine realms.

Artistic representations

The myth of Medusa and the Gorgons has inspired countless artistic interpretations throughout history. From ancient Greek pottery to Renaissance paintings, artists have sought to capture the allure and terror associated with these mythical beings. Notable works include Caravaggio’s Medusa, where the artist depicts the severed head with haunting realism, capturing the moment of transformation frozen in time.

On the Greek island of Corfu, a large statue of Medusa dating from 580 BC was found in the remains of the Temple of Artemis (an Archaic era and the oldest-known Greek stone temple). The statue would have been part of the pediment of the temple, and is on display at the Archaeological Museum of Corfu. It depicts this Gorgon as having wings, and as a strong woman with a wide mouth and protruding tongue (often depicting a cacophonous loud noise). It also shows Medusa’s two children: Pegasus and a golden giant.

An archaic Gorgon (around 580 BC), as depicted on a pediment from the temple of Artemis in Corfu, on display at the Archaeological Museum of Corfu

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Archaeological Museum of Corfu / CC BY-SA 4.0

The statue’s role would have been to look down at new arrivals, protecting and impressing at the temple’s entrance. Medusa was thought to scare or protect depending on who you are. To help her achieve this, fantastical wild beasts including a ‘leo-panther’ (lion/panther) are depicted by her.

Because of their legendary and powerful gaze that could turn one to stone, in ancient Greece, images of the Gorgons (or an individual Gorgoneion – a stone head, engraving, or drawing of a Gorgon face, often with snakes protruding wildly and the tongue sticking out between her fangs) were frequently used as a talisman, and placed on doors, walls, floors, coins, shields, breastplates, tombstones, and on the ends of pipes or roofs, in the hopes of warding off evil.

In later centuries, Gorgon imagery developed from depicting a monstrous woman with a wide mouth and tongue out, to a more beautiful and sedate-looking woman, but with a couple of snakes in the hair.

Gorgons in popular culture

The legacy of the Gorgons extends beyond ancient mythology into modern popular culture. The image of Medusa, with her serpent hair and petrifying gaze, has become a recognisable symbol in literature, art, and cinema. Whether in classical literature or contemporary fantasy novels, the Gorgons continue to captivate audiences with their otherworldly and fearsome nature, and remain a timeless exploration of human fascination with the divine, the monstrous, and the transformative power of myth.

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a pivotal role in the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.

From the age of 16 he grew a reputation in the Roman army, serving in Asia and Cilicia. Returning to Rome, he was pontifex maximus in 63 BC, praetor in 62 BC and propraetor in Hispania Ulterior. He gained the title Imperator (an honorary role assumed by military commanders) in 60 BC and again in 45 BC.

Caesar’s military prowess and political acumen propelled him to prominence. His rise was marked by notable victories in Gaul which solidified his reputation as a brilliant military strategist, and expanded the borders of the Roman Republic through what we know today as France, Spain and Britain. In 60 BC serving as Consul, he brokered a peace between Crassus and Pompey, creating the First Triumvirate.

He served as governor in Gaul until 50 BC, during which time his huge popularity and independence created tension between him and other elected officials in Rome.

‘Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar’ by Lionel Royer

When Pompey and Crassus ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome, instead, Caesar famously defied the Senate’s orders and crossed the Rubicon river (from the province of Gaul into Roman territory), sparking a civil war between the First Triumvirate.

Upon victory Caesar declared himself dictator of Rome in 49 BC, marking the end of the Roman Republic. He implemented critical reforms aimed at alleviating social and economic inequalities. However, his concentration of power unsettled the Roman Senate, leading to his assassination by a group of senators on the Ides of March 15 March 44 BC. 

Caesar’s death plunged Rome into chaos, paving the way for the rise of Caesar’s great-nephew and heir, Octavian (later known as Augustus) as the first Emperor – and the formation of the Roman Empire.

Julius Caesar left an indelible mark on history, and testament to his legacy are the many things named after him:

July

The Roman month Quintilis was renamed Julius in honour of Caesar following his death. We know it today as July.

The Julian Calendar

Caesar’s academics reformed the Roman calendar in 46 BC. Before then, the calendar was misaligned to the seasons. 46 BC is also the longest year in history, having 445 days in total.

Caesar / Czar / Kaiser

Caesar’s name is the title for Roman, Russian and German monarchs.

Caesarism

Caesarism is a recognised form of government behind a powerful, usually military leader – Napoleon was arguably a Caesarist and Benjamin Disraeli was accused of it.

HMS Caesar

The British warship was one of several named after Caesar. The Italian battleship Giulio Cesare saw service in World War Two.

The Caesarsboom (Caesar’s Tree)

Located in the Belgian town of Lo, Caesarsboom is a yew tree believed to be more than 2,000 years old. A local legend has thus emerged that Julius Caesar once rested under the tree.

Limited Companies

There are nearly 700 limited companies (LTD) registered in the UK with the name ‘Caesar’. Many are associated with Italian food.

Not Caesar

As much as you might wish it, the Caesar salad was not named after Julius Caesar, but the Italian who created it – Caesar Cardini.

Furthermore, a ‘cesarean’ section – one of the most ancient surgical procedures – did not originate from the birth of Roman Emperor Julius Caesar. Cesarean sections were rarely attempted on living women until the early 17th century, and Julius Caesar’s mother was alive and well through her son’s adult life. The origin of the procedure’s name remains obscure.

This story is featured in History Hit’s Miscellany: Facts, Figures and Fascinating Finds, published by Hodder & Stoughton, on sale now.

Though he had modest origins, Eumenes had served as secretary to Alexander, and his father Philip II before him, and acquired authority and prestige through his control of the conquerors’ intelligence and correspondence. His aristocratic opponents sought Eumenes’ death almost from the off, but Eumenes prevailed. Yet with the death in 319 BC of Antipater, the elderly steady hand entrusted by Alexander to rule in Europe, the general Antigonus saw an opportunity to take control of the empire himself. It set him on a direct path to confrontation with Eumenes.

Besieged at Nora

In 319 BC Eumenes had been defeated by Antigonus at the Battle of Orkynia in Cappadocia, after which he had retreated and taken refuge in a virtually impregnable stronghold called Nora. Recognising Eumenes’ proven ability to command, Antigonus is supposed to have made an offer to Eumenes to instate him as one of his own officers. Eumenes may have sought better terms and in any case would have been well supplied to wait it out. Soon the death of Antipater would throw his opponents’ plans into disarray.

1810 depictions of ancient siege warfare.

Image Credit: New York Public Library / Public Domain

But Antigonus was not the only powerful Macedonian who desired Eumenes as an ally. Back in Macedonia, Antipater’s successor, Polyperchon was also eyeing his support. At that time, Polyperchon’s position was in jeopardy. Antipater’s son Cassander, furious at not being labelled his father’s successor, had started gathering an army to confront Polyperchon. He sailed over to Asia Minor, to petition Antigonus.

Antigonus agreed to Cassander’s offer of an alliance. Polyperchon was now desperate. Antigonus was then the most powerful commander in the empire, with an army of almost 70,000 men. Polyperchon looked to Eumenes.

Kings’ General

Polyperchon sent a messenger to Eumenes in Cappadocia with an irresistible offer. If he were to break with Antigonus, the new regent offered Eumenes the title of ‘King’s General’ in Asia. Polyperchon offered him access to the vast royal treasury at Cyinda and even more auspiciously, command of the Silver Shields, Alexander the Great’s veteran Macedonian infantry guarding the treasury.

Eumenes abruptly headed east to Cyinda. There, as promised, he gained access to the royal treasury and the formidable Silver Shields. Eumenes’ war with Antigonus was back on.

The war re-starts

Antigonus was furious. Thanks to Polyperchon’s offer, he now had a new great threat in the east. Abruptly, his plans to invade Macedonia were put on hold and gathering a large army, he headed east once more in pursuit of the Cardian. Yet by the time he reached Syria, Eumenes had already departed. He had headed further to the east, keen to enlist the aid of the eastern governors against Antigonus.

Near Susa, Eumenes met with many of these satraps, already united with their armies. Most notable among these men was the Macedonian Peucestas, a former bodyguard of Alexander, friend to Eumenes and the governor of Persia. There was also Eudamus, who had come from India with a large force of elephants.

The Battle of the Coprates River, 317 BC

Meanwhile, Antigonus received reinforcements at Babylon from two fellow Macedonian generals, Seleucus and Peithon, and went in hot pursuit of Eumenes. In the summer of 317 BC, their forces clashed on the eastern bank of the Coprates River, now known as the Dez River in Iran. While Antigonus’ forces were in the midst of crossing, Eumenes led 4,000 infantry and 1,300 cavalry towards the river, and charged.

The forces of Antigonus that had reached the other side, some 6,000 men, were taken completely by surprise. Soon that part of Antigonus’ army routed. Eumenes had won a small but clear victory, taking over 4,000 of Antigonus’ men prisoner. Unable to cross, Antigonus was forced to head north, around the Zagros Mountains. Fresh from this victory and with Antigonus off his back, Eumenes now planned to turn around, returning with his large army towards the Mediterranean.

The Macedonian phalanx, from “Cassell’s Illustrated Universal History” (1893).

Image Credit: British Library / Public Domain

Yet his eastern allies, most notably Peucestas, refused to comply. They feared that if they headed west, Antigonus would ravage their provinces. The eastern provinces were some of the richest lands in the empire, after all. Relenting, Eumenes continued east to Peucestas’ provincial capital of Persepolis. Antigonus circumnavigated the Zagros Mountains and was again advancing on Eumenes. Eumenes marched his forces from Persepolis to meet those of his rival. On the plains of Paraetacene, their forces clashed once again.

The Battle of Paraetacene, 317 BC

At Paraetacene, Eumenes deployed his army at the bottom of the plain. His force numbered just over 40,000 men, including 35,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry and 114 elephants. On his left, Eumenes placed over 3,000 of his cavalry. Then in his centre, he then placed his mercenary infantry, 5,000 troops trained in the Macedonian manner and finally, in the most prestigious place of the infantry line, the Silver Shields.

On his right wing, Eumenes placed his heavy cavalry, including both himself and Peucestas. Finally, Eumenes spread his elephants along the length of his line, with light infantry in between. Facing Eumenes, Antigonus’ army lay on a slight elevation to one side of the plain. His army was slightly smaller than that of Eumenes: 28,000 infantry, 8,500 cavalry and sixty-five elephants. On the left wing, he deployed his light cavalry: most notably a thousand agile horse archers from Parthia and two thousand expert Tarentine cavalry. These were placed under the command of Peithon.

Next to them, Antigonus placed his mercenary infantry, followed by 8,000 mixed Asian troops trained in the Macedonian manner and finally his 8,000 Macedonians. On his right wing, Antigonus placed his finest cavalry, the Companions, under the command of his son Demetrius, with himself furthest to the right. For his elephants, Antigonus placed most of them in front of his infantry line, facing those of Eumenes, with light infantry interspersed between them. Deployed in such a manner, Antigonus advanced his army at an angle. He moved his stronger right wing forward, keeping his lighter left wing further back.

Peithon’s charge

Sensing an opportunity for personal glory, Peithon decided to take matters into his own hands. He ordered his light cavalry on Antigonus’ left to advance against those facing them. Equipped with swift mounts and deadly missiles, these horsemen then rained arrows and javelins down on the opposing elephants and cavalry. Eumenes responded by sending a portion of his light cavalry on his left flank over to his right, chasing away Peithon’s light horsemen from the battle.

Meanwhile the infantry phalanxes had collided, and a desperate struggle was underway. Finally, the great experience of Eumenes’ silver shields shone through. Their unit had fought in the campaigns of both Philip II and his son Alexander; their skill was unmatched, crushing Antigonus’ opposing infantry easily. Much of Antigonus’ army was now in retreat. But the one-eyed general himself refused to withdraw. Seeing an opening on Eumenes’ left, he charged with his elite cavalry into the side of this force, causing panic. Eumenes’ left wing collapsed.

The rest of his army however was still intact and came to fend off any further attacks from Antigonus’ remaining forces. The battle ended with both sides claiming victory, yet it was Eumenes who had come off better. He had lost just over 500 men in the encounter; Antigonus on the other hand, had lost almost 4,000.

The war continues

Eumenes marched further east, to the rich lands of Gabiene while Antigonus returned to Media. Antigonus knew that the odds were now stacked against him; his losses at both the Coprates river and now at Paraecatene meant that his army was now notably smaller than that of Eumenes. He therefore attempted to outwit his foe with a surprise attack. Rather than waiting to restart campaigning next summer, Antigonus marched his army in the winter of 316 BC, through a harsh wilderness, hoping to surprise Eumenes.

Unfortunately for Antigonus, the plan was foiled and Eumenes managed to organise his forces on a nearby plain, awaiting the next battle. And so it was that in the winter of 316 BC, the final great clash between these formidable generals was to take place. It would decide the Second War of the Diadochi.