“We believe it is the only certain piece of surviving gladiatorial equipment from Britain,” Dr Richard Hobbs tells History Hit’s Tristan Hughes, who heads behind the scenes at the British Museum for a special look at the exhibition ‘Gladiators of Britain’ which tours in 2025-2026.

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The ‘Hawkedon helmet’ is an extraordinary relic of Roman Britain. It may date from the period immediately following the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD. It is similar to helmets identified in Pompeii, and was probably not made in Britain.

It features a broad neck guard and brow ridge, with rivet holes that would match a visor. The brass was possibly tinned, which means it would have shone almost like gold and silver in the sun.

The helmet and other objects including a gladiator figurine, oil lamp shaped like a gladiator’s helmet and a coin depicting the Colosseum feature in a History Hit film presented by Tristan Hughes.

A bone figurine of a gladiator found in Colchester forms, alongside over 10 identified amphitheatres, evidence of gladiators in Britain. For a time Colchester was the capital of Roman Britain.

A figurine of a gladiator carved from bone.

Image Credit: History Hit

“When Britain became part of the Empire, it brought with it all those things that we associate with Rome, the games being part of that,” explains curator Dr Richard Hobbs.

The figurine depicts a heavily-armed murmillo type gladiator. He wields a shield which itself depicts a gladiator defeating opponents, and either a short sword (gladius) or palm frond.

Another item, a bronze coin (sestertius) provides a fascinating contemporary look at the Colosseum in Rome. It is bigger and thicker than a British 2 pence, and on its face depicts the legendary’s arena’s three levels of arcades and its top level.

Its detail is fine. Not only can you spot small statues on the Colosseum, but also two gladiators in combat in the arena itself.

A coin depicting the Colosseum in Rome.

Image Credit: History Hit

“You can see where all of these little sticks are pointing out,” explains curator Dr Anna Willi. “These are wooden poles that held the awnings that could have been put on on a hot day and they were operated by soldiers from the Roman fleet.”

Why is the Colosseum on a coin? A similar coin was issued when the amphitheatre was inaugurated by emperor Titus in 80 AD. But this coin was issued in 223 AD by Severus Alexander, whose portrait is on the reverse of the coin. He had completed repairs on the Colosseum after it had been struck by lightning and damaged. This coin celebrated his work. He is even inserted as a small figure standing beside the arena.

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In History Hit documentary Rome’s Disaster, Tristan Hughes heads to Germany to investigate some of the worst days in Roman military history which unfolded in 9 AD. At the Varus Battle Museum, named for the humbled Roman commander, Tristan gets hands-on with archaeology from the battle.

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As the Romans fell, the battle sites were looted by their attackers who picked the fields for valuables. Fortunately for us, some Roman artefacts were left behind.

“We have about 5-6,000 Roman finds, 2,000 coins, a lot of bones,” explains museum managing director Stefan Burmeister.

“We have recovered about an area of 50 square kilometres. Most finds come from the core area here in the museum park. We do a lot of excavations and every time we open the soil, it’s like a spring. Things come up.”

Among the human remains is the top of a human skull with a large hole and indications of a mortal sword blow. Their identity, however, remains anonymous – for now.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

“We have lots of bones. Of course, we know they are all male, very strong stature, between 20 and 40 years of age. We just started a genomic project, and perhaps in one or two years time, we will know more about the ancestry and if they come as Romans or come from the Mediterranean, or if it’s a Germanic warrior.”

Getting closer to the Battle of Teutoburg

Despite lacking concrete proof that the area near the museum was the site of the famous battle, there is good evidence.

“We have lots of coins, 2,000 coins, and they all tell a story and they bring us close to the event,” says Burmeister.

One coin in particular, made from copper and perhaps the value of a glass of wine, displays a unique counter-stamp.

“This is the Varus counter-stamp. It’s a V-A-R. And this was stamped in the time when Varus was commander of the Legion of the Rhine. So this must have been stamped in the years 7 to 9 AD.”

Other, more precious, personal items have also been recovered from the battlefield, including two golden finger rings with high quality, semi-precious stones. Both depict mythological themes. One depicts Silenus, a god of drunkenness, and the other the winged horse Pegasus.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

These styles of rings were worn by Roman men and women. In modern terms, however, these rings correspond to the smallest female sizes.

“We know that in the baggage train, the soldiers had their families with them, women and children,” explains Burmeister. “And I think with these two rings, we have good evidence of these families accompanying the army.”

Not only were these rings originally crafted for someone originating from thousands of miles away. They highlight how women and children were present at the battle as well as fighting men. The rings also suggest that they got caught up in the carnage, too.

“They were caught, perhaps killed, we don’t know,” says Burmeister. “In the bones we only have men. We know from other historians that 30-40 years later, the Romans bought the last survivors.”

From human remains to gold rings, the archaeology unearthed at Kalkriese is providing a huge range of information about the battle. But perhaps one artefact personifies this massacre more than any other.

A Roman cavalry mask made from iron and coated in silver and depicting a human face, used more for parades than actual battle, is a unique survivor from Teutoburg. We’ll never know what happened to the Roman who wore the mask, but more likely than not he suffered a similar fate to many of his comrades, either killed or captured by the Germans during the later stages of this battle.

Watch Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest by signing up to History Hit.

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Joining Tristan Hughes on The Ancients, the consultant on Ridley Scott’s Gladiator and Amazon Prime’s Those About to Die (in which he even has a cameo) explains that deaths, when they happened, more often followed later from injuries.

“Combat sports were very violent,” says Mariotti. “And gladiatorial combat is part of that pantheon of sports.”

However the use of weapons made it particularly dangerous. “One of the reasons they don’t wear tunics is because the linen or the wool getting stuck in a wound would kill you [from] an infection.”

Those About to Die

Image Credit: Those About to Die / NBCU

“But what we do find from modern forensics on gladiatorial skeletons is that these guys, majoritively, have medical care, so they have wounds that are then healed. So you’ve not only got a doctor that’s healing you, but you’re also paying for the time that the injured can recover. Because we see from the bones that they actually physically recover even from medical amputations.”

“There are certainly moments where gladiators were expected to, to fight to the death. But I think they’re an absolute rarity.”

Mariotti emphasises that in the arena it took skill not to kill an opponent.

“There were set rules, the training was important because combat, especially with weaponry, instigates ‘fight or flight’.”

“You’ve got the adrenaline pumping, you’ve got the noise, you’re wearing a helmet and this noise is reverberating, the discomfort. And yet they had the ability to stop at the right moment and not kill their opponents, because most of the time they didn’t kill their opponents.”

Mariotti wastes no time debunking other gladiator myths. (Did gladiators fight animals? No, but beast hunts did happen, just as the preserve of hunting specialists.) Find out more when you stream this filmed episode of The Ancients on History Hit.

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Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a pivotal role in the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.

From the age of 16 he grew a reputation in the Roman army, serving in Asia and Cilicia. Returning to Rome, he was pontifex maximus in 63 BC, praetor in 62 BC and propraetor in Hispania Ulterior. He gained the title Imperator (an honorary role assumed by military commanders) in 60 BC and again in 45 BC.

Caesar’s military prowess and political acumen propelled him to prominence. His rise was marked by notable victories in Gaul which solidified his reputation as a brilliant military strategist, and expanded the borders of the Roman Republic through what we know today as France, Spain and Britain. In 60 BC serving as Consul, he brokered a peace between Crassus and Pompey, creating the First Triumvirate.

He served as governor in Gaul until 50 BC, during which time his huge popularity and independence created tension between him and other elected officials in Rome.

‘Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar’ by Lionel Royer

When Pompey and Crassus ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome, instead, Caesar famously defied the Senate’s orders and crossed the Rubicon river (from the province of Gaul into Roman territory), sparking a civil war between the First Triumvirate.

Upon victory Caesar declared himself dictator of Rome in 49 BC, marking the end of the Roman Republic. He implemented critical reforms aimed at alleviating social and economic inequalities. However, his concentration of power unsettled the Roman Senate, leading to his assassination by a group of senators on the Ides of March 15 March 44 BC. 

Caesar’s death plunged Rome into chaos, paving the way for the rise of Caesar’s great-nephew and heir, Octavian (later known as Augustus) as the first Emperor – and the formation of the Roman Empire.

Julius Caesar left an indelible mark on history, and testament to his legacy are the many things named after him:

July

The Roman month Quintilis was renamed Julius in honour of Caesar following his death. We know it today as July.

The Julian Calendar

Caesar’s academics reformed the Roman calendar in 46 BC. Before then, the calendar was misaligned to the seasons. 46 BC is also the longest year in history, having 445 days in total.

Caesar / Czar / Kaiser

Caesar’s name is the title for Roman, Russian and German monarchs.

Caesarism

Caesarism is a recognised form of government behind a powerful, usually military leader – Napoleon was arguably a Caesarist and Benjamin Disraeli was accused of it.

HMS Caesar

The British warship was one of several named after Caesar. The Italian battleship Giulio Cesare saw service in World War Two.

The Caesarsboom (Caesar’s Tree)

Located in the Belgian town of Lo, Caesarsboom is a yew tree believed to be more than 2,000 years old. A local legend has thus emerged that Julius Caesar once rested under the tree.

Limited Companies

There are nearly 700 limited companies (LTD) registered in the UK with the name ‘Caesar’. Many are associated with Italian food.

Not Caesar

As much as you might wish it, the Caesar salad was not named after Julius Caesar, but the Italian who created it – Caesar Cardini.

Furthermore, a ‘cesarean’ section – one of the most ancient surgical procedures – did not originate from the birth of Roman Emperor Julius Caesar. Cesarean sections were rarely attempted on living women until the early 17th century, and Julius Caesar’s mother was alive and well through her son’s adult life. The origin of the procedure’s name remains obscure.

This story is featured in History Hit’s Miscellany: Facts, Figures and Fascinating Finds, published by Hodder & Stoughton, on sale now.

The story of Boudica, the Celtic queen who waged a brave battle against the Roman Empire in 60 AD, is only recorded in two classical manuscripts. They were written decades after by male classical authors, Tacitus and Cassius Dio.

The Iceni tribe

Not a great deal is known about the early life of Boudica, but it is understood that she was of royal descent. In the Celtic language of the Iceni tribe, whose leader she was, her name simply meant ‘Victory’. She married King Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe (based in  modern day East Anglia) and the pair had two daughters.

The Iceni were a small British Celtic tribe that was independent and wealthy, and they were a client kingdom of Rome. When the Romans conquered southern England in 43 AD, they allowed Prasutagus to continue to rule as a subservient to Rome. As part of the agreement, Prasagustus named the Emperor of Rome joint heir to his kingdom along with his wife and daughters.

Unfortunately, Roman law did not allow inheritance through the female line. Following the death of Prasutagus, the Romans decided to rule the Iceni directly and confiscated the property of the leading tribesmen. In a show of Roman power, it is alleged that they publicly flogged Boudica and soldiers attacked her two young daughters.

Making a stand

Instead of accepting her fate, and that of her people, Boudica led a native army of British tribes in revolt against oppressive Roman rule.

Credit: John Opie

Boudica’s revolt had little long-term effect, but the fact that she was a respected woman of the time captured the imagination of many, including Tacitus and Cassius Dio. However, whilst feminists have gone on to champion Boudica as an icon, the very concept of feminism was alien to the society in which she lived. The Romans viewed women warriors as indicative of an immoral, uncivilised society, and these views are reflected in the condemning accounts of both Tacitus and Cassius Dio.

Cassius Dio’s description of Boudica voids her of femininity, portraying her instead with qualities more closely associated with the masculine ideal: “in stature, she was very tall, in appearance most terrifying, in the glance of her eye most fierce, and her voice was harsh; a great mass of the tawniest hair fell to her hips; around her neck was a large golden necklace…”

Boudica’s bloody rampage

While the governor of Britain, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was far away in the west suppressing the last druid stronghold on the Island of Anglesey, Boudica set her plan into action. Allied with the neighbouring Trinovantes, the queen began her rebellion by attacking an almost undefended Camulodunum (modern-day Colchester).

The Ninth Legion, commanded by Quintus Petillius Cerialis, attempted to relieve the siege but they arrived too late. The tribes had gathered considerable force by the time the Ninth Legion had arrived and the infantrymen found themselves overwhelmed and were annihilated. Boudica and her army burned, butchered and crucified the entire Roman population in the area.

Camulodunum’s surviving citizens retreated to their temple where, for two days, they cowered behind its thick walls. They were eventually forced out of hiding and their sanctuary was torched by Boudica and her followers.

A triumphant Boudica urged her forces on, destroying London and Verulamium (St Albans). Boudica and her estimated 100,000 strong army are believed to have killed and slaughtered some 70,000 Roman soldiers. Modern archaeologists have found a layer of burned earth in each area that they call the Boudican destruction horizon.

After a series of victories, Boudica was eventually defeated by a Roman army led by Suetonius at Watling Street. Rome’s power in Britain was fully restored, and remained for the next 350 years.

The legacy of the warrior queen

The end of Boudica’s life is shrouded in mystery. It is unknown where the site of the battle or of her death was. Tacitus wrote that she took poison to avoid the consequences of her actions, but whether or not this is true remains unclear.

Though she lost her battle and her cause, Boudica is celebrated today as a national heroine and a universal symbol of the human desire for freedom and justice.

In the 16th century Queen Elizabeth I used Boudica’s story as an example to prove that a woman was fit to be queen. In 1902, a bronze statue of Boudica and her daughters riding a chariot was erected at the end of Westminster Bridge, London. The statue is a testament to Britain’s imperial aspirations under Queen Victoria.

It was one of ten similar fleets across the empire. It was employed like an army service corps because it reported to the procurator in Britain rather than the governor. The procurator was in charge of tax collection, and so the fleet was there to make the province of Britain pay into the imperial treasury.

This article is an edited transcript of Roman Navy in Britain: The Classis Britannica with Simon Elliott.

Epigraphic evidence of the Classis Britannica

The fleet had its origins in the Claudian invasion of Britain in AD 43 when 900 ships were constructed to carry Aulus Plautius’ huge invasion force of 40,000 legionaries and auxilia from northwestern Gaul. There’s a strong epigraphic record of the fleet; that is, references to the fleet within writing on funerary monuments. A lot of the relevant epigraphy is in Boulogne, which is where the Classis Britannica was headquartered.

Boulogne served as the headquarters of the fleet because, not only did the fleet have responsibility for the English Channel, the Atlantic approaches, the east and west coasts of England and the Irish Sea, but it also had responsibility for the northwestern continental coast of the Roman Empire, all the way up to the Rhine.

That reflects how the Romans viewed the English Channel and the North Sea in a different way to how we might see it today. For them, it wasn’t the barrier that we see in recent military history; it was actually a point of connectivity, and a motorway by which Roman Britain remained a fully functioning part of the Roman Empire.

The navy in archaeology

We know where a lot of the fleet’s fortified harbours were, thanks to the archaeological record, which provides a lot of detail. This record also includes a piece of graffiti on some waste lead from Roman Britain that depicts a Roman galley. It was clearly drawn by somebody who had actually seen a Roman galley for themselves and so, in that, we have an absolutely wonderful piece of first-hand evidence depicting a galley on a ship in the Classis Britannica.

The Classis Britannica also ran some of the province’s metal industries. This included the iron industry in the Weald, which the fleet ran through to the middle of the 3rd century and which made a lot of the iron that the military on the province’s northern borders needed to operate. The archaeological record provides a lot of detail for the Classis Britannica.

The fleet’s big iron working sites were monumental in scale, about factory size to us today. We know they were run by the fleet because all of the buildings have tiles stamped with the Classis Britannica insignia.

Written evidence about Britain’s Roman navy

There is also important evidence in the written record. The first time that the naval force was mentioned was in the Flavian period, in the context of a failure in the year 69. The Classis Britannica was recorded by the historian Tacitus as taking a British legion across to the Rhine to help fight Civilis and his revolting Batavians.

The Rembrandt painting The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis depicts a Batavian oath to Gaius Julius Civilis.

The legionary commander, Fabius Priscus, then marched his legion against the Nervii and Tungri tribes who had proved so troublesome almost 130 years earlier to Julius Caesar during his Gallic campaigns. However, the legate appears to have left his fleet in a vulnerable situation with no guards.

This invasion force worth of ships, which had effectively carried an entire legion, was then left in the Rhine estuary overnight, unprotected. The local Germans burnt it to a cinder. As a result, the first reference to the Classis Britannica in the written record was made in ignominy. The fleet was rebuilt very quickly, however.

The navy in the 1st and 2nd centuries

By the mid-70s AD, the province of Britannia was effectively established along lines that remained recognisable for the rest of the Roman occupation, the northern border on the Solway Firth – Tyne line later to be fortified by Hadrian. The Classis Britannica played a major role in the ambitious attempts of the governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola to conquer Scotland.

The Classis Britannica spent much of the 2^nd century AD supporting the military presence on the northern border, coming back into focus again in 196 AD when the British Governor Clodius Albinus launched an unsuccessful usurpation attempt against the Emperor Septimius Severus.

However, the fleet was back in action again by the early 3^rd century AD when Severus attempted his own ‘shock and awe’ conquest of Scotland. By this time the Maeatae around the line of the now abandoned Antonine Wall, and Caledonians further north, had become so troublesome that the governor sent a desperate dispatch requesting new troops or the Emperor himself.  He got both.

Britain’s Roman navy and Septimus Severus

Severus crossed the English Channel in AD 208 with a huge Imperial entourage including with the Praetorian Guard, Imperial guard cavalry and crack units from the continental legions. This was again transported by the Classis Britannica which landed the troops in all of the ports down the east coast given the army’s size.

The last time the fleet was ever mentioned was in 249 in the context of the funerary stelae of Saturninus, a captain of the Classis Britannica. This captain was from North Africa, which shows how cosmopolitan the Roman Empire was.

There are also records of people from Syria and Iraq up around Hadrian’s Wall. In fact, there is epigraphy along the Wall which reveals that the Classis Britannica actually built parts of the structure and also helped to maintain it. Meanwhile, there is a reference towards the end of the Roman Empire in Britain of some Tigris boatman acting as bargemen on the Tyne.

What happened to the Classis Britannica?

As detailed earlier, we know the fleet disappears from the historical record in the middle of the 3^rd century AD, but the cause is a mystery.

A number of events in the 3^rd century are candidates. One is the scramble for Imperial control between the Senate and the military after the assassination of Alexander Severus in AD 235, the event which initiated the ‘Crisis of the 3^rd Century’.

Another was the usurping Gallic Empire founded by Postumus that lasted from AD 260 to AD 274. Finally, there is the tale of another usurper, Carausius and his North Sea Empire that lasted from AD 286 to AD 296.

Any could have presented a situation where the Classis Britannica found itself on the wrong side of usurpation, the fleet suffering dramatically as a result.

Yet in 113 BC a new threat neared Italy – a giant Germanic horde that had descended from the northern reaches of Europe, intent on finding new lands to settle. The greatest threat to Rome since Hannibal Barca, this is the story of the Cimbric War and the shining moment of one of the Republic‘s most famous figures.

The coming of the Cimbri

In 115 BC a great migration shook central Europe. The Cimbri, a Germanic tribe hailing originally from what is now the Jutland Peninsula, had started migrating south. Harsh winter conditions or flooding of their homeland had forced them to take this drastic measure and search for a new homeland.

The horde headed southwards. Hundreds of thousands of people filled its ranks – men, women and children. And it was not long before the migration swelled further. As the Cimbri journeyed south, two other Germanic tribes had joined the migration: the Ambrones and Teutones.

By 113 BC, after a long and perilous journey, they had arrived at the Celtic kingdom of Noricum, situated on the northern reaches of the Alps. At the time, Noricum was inhabited by the Taurisci, a Celtic tribe. Upon the arrival of this huge migration they sought aid from their ally to the south. That ally was Rome. The Romans agreed to help. Gnaeus Carbo, the Roman consul for the year 113 BC, was sent to Noricum with an army to deal with this new threat.

Map highlighting The migration of the Cimbri and the Teutons (Credit: Pethrus / CC).

Disaster at Noreia

For Carbo this was his moment. The Roman patrician was consul for only one year. If he was to make his name in the history books, gaining glory on the battlefield with a great victory was essential. But Carbo was to be disappointed. Upon his arrival in Noricum, the Cimbri sent ambassadors. They had no intention of getting involved in a war with the Mediterranean superpower. Carbo, however, had other ideas. Feigning agreement to a peaceful solution, secretly he made preparations for battle.

A disaster ensued. Carbo had planned to ambush the horde as they were leaving Taurisci territory, but his treachery was discovered. Reports reached the tribesmen of the intended ambush. Their ambush discovered, thousands of Germanic warriors descended on the soldiers. Almost all of the Roman force was killed – Carbo himself committing suicide in the aftermath.

Roman soldiers wearing arms and armour of the time.

Further defeats

Following their victory, the Cimbri, Teutons and Ambrones headed west to Gaul. Traversing the land, they raided and pillaged – Gallic tribes either joining or resisting the new threat. It was not long before the Romans responded. Armies attempted to contest to Cimbri and their allies in southern Gaul, keen to retain Roman control over Gallia Narbonensis. But these initial forces met only with defeat.

Arausio

In 105 BC the Romans decided to end the threat once and for all. They amassed two massive armies – 80,000 Romans in total mustered to form one of the largest forces in the Republic’s history.

This new force headed to southern Gaul and it was not long before it encountered the Cimbri and the Teutons. Near the town of Arausio on 6 October 105 BC the decisive battle was fought, with disastrous consequences for the Romans. Animosity between the two leading Roman commanders caused the engagement to end in catastrophic disaster. In turn the two commanders and their armies were surrounded by the Germans and slaughtered.

By the end of the day 80,000 Roman soldiers lay dead, not to mention the thousands of auxiliaries that had accompanied them. It was the greatest military disaster in Rome’s history, eclipsing Cannae 100 years before and the Teutoburg Forest tragedy 100 years later.

Victorious once again, the Cimbri, Teutons, Ambrones and their Gallic allies decided against invading Italy proper. Instead they searched for more plunder in Gaul and the rich Iberian Peninsula. For Rome, this decision offered them the critical respite they so desperately needed.

The return of Marius

In 105 BC, a famous Roman general returned to Italy. His name was Gaius Marius, the victor of the recently-concluded Jugurthine War in north Africa. Marius was very popular with the soldiers – a general with multiple victories behind his back. It was Marius who the Romans looked to in this time of need.

Taking advantage of the time the Germans had gifted him, Marius set about recruiting a new army. But there was a problem. Manpower was an issue. Over 100,000 Romans had already perished fighting the migration; new, eligible recruits were sparse. Marius also realised that fundamental reform of the structure and tactics of the Roman army was necessary to defeat this new enemy.

The Marian reforms

So Marius came up with a radical solution. He altered the Roman recruitment system to allow the Roman proletarii – the poor and landless – to enlist. In what was considered a truly radical move, he removed the property requirement until then necessary for service in the legions. Promises of pay and land at the end of their service were added incentives. Only in the most dire of situations had Rome previously resorted to arming these men.

Thanks to these reforms, it was not long before Marius’ new army swelled with new recruits. He placed them on an effective training regime, transforming his array of raw recruits into a physically tough and mentally strong force. Disciplined and loyal, Marius prepared his men to stand up to the toughest attacks that Germanic fighters would throw at them. This involved training with loaded marches and other exercises, but also making his men accustomed to the sight of the tall, fearless Germanic warriors.

Marius meets the Cimbri ambassadors.

The tide of war turns

Marius had successfully transformed the Roman army into the most effective fighting force yet seen. In 102 BC the news finally reached Italy that the Germanic tribes were marching east towards Italy. Marius and his new model army headed to southern Gaul to confront the menace. In 102 BC Marius and his men encountered the Teutons and Ambrones at Aquae Sextiae. After fending off a Teuton attack on their encampment, the two forces engaged in a pitched battle.

Marius and his legionaries positioned themselves on a hill, while their enemy charged. As the legions held their ground inflicting terrible losses on their foe fighting uphill, a Roman contingent charged the Germans from behind, causing a rout. The Teutons and Ambrones were massacred.

The last stand and suicide of the Teuton women and their children at Aquae Sextiae.

Fresh from victory, Marius and his legions returned to northern Italy. The Cimbri, in the meantime, invaded from the north. On 30 July 101 BC the final battle occurred at Vercellae. Once again Marius and his new army won a decisive victory. The Cimbri were massacred. As the Romans stormed the Cimbri camp, the tribes’ women resisted their foe in a last stand. Almost all the Cimbri tribesmen were slaughtered – their women and children sent into a life of slavery. The Germanic threat was no more.

‘The Third Founder of Rome’

Despite initially suffering several disastrous defeats, the Romans had recovered and adapted. But in the end their foe’s decision to plunder Spain and not march on Italy after their great victory at Arausio was key, allowing Marius the time to muster and train his new, model army. As for Marius, he was hailed as the saviour of Rome; no less than “the third founder of Rome,” reports Plutarch, “as having diverted a danger no less threatening than was that when the Gauls sacked Rome.”

Marius would go on to take consulship 7 times – an unprecedented number. Backed by his army he became the first of the great warlords that epitomised the late Republican period and dominated the Roman political scene. Yet his victory against the Cimbri was his finest hour.

But as the 1st century BC beckoned, and the Roman Republic entered its final stages, the Roman legionaries would experience further changes. Especially to their armour.

Marian and Augustan reforms

The next major evolution of the legionary was under the reforms of the highly successful soldier and seven-time consul Gaius Marius at the beginning of the 1^st century BC. He did away with the manipular system completely and rebuilt the legions anew with cohorts of similarly-armed legionaries. His aim was for each legion to be a self-contained fighting force. Therefore, of the 6,000 men in each legion, 4,800 were now a standardised variant of the legionary.

This was based on the gladius and pilum-armed armed principes and hastati (though the terms were dropped), with the spear-armed triarii and supporting velites disappearing entirely. From now on, all fighting men in the legion were simply called legionaries, with the remaining 1,200 men being support staff. The next military reformation was carried out by Augustus in the late 1st century BC, covering every aspect of the armed forces of Rome.

His first move with the legions was to tackle the huge number he had inherited from the civil wars of which he emerged the victor, in total around 60. He reduced this to 28 (this falling to 25 after Varus’ losses in Germany in 9 AD), and the total would hover around 30 for the next 200 years, for example 29 at the time of the accession of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in 161 AD.

He then rationalised their organisation. From that point they comprised 5,500 men, organised into ten cohorts. Of these, the first had five centuries of 160 men (later the Severan legio II Parthica’s first cohort had six such centuries), with the other cohorts having six centuries of 80 men. Additionally, the legion also featured 120 auxiliary cavalry acting as dispatch riders and scouts, and support staff.

Marian / Augustan armour

The defensive equipment of the Marian and Augustan legions was a natural evolution of their Camillan and Polybian forebears. In terms of the helmet, the traditional Republic Roman Montefortino type was still in use when Augustus became Emperor, though the mid-Republican Etrusco-Corinthian and Attic types had disappeared by then.

However two new types had appeared in the generation before Augustus, reflecting a Celtic influence following Caesar’s campaigns in Gaul (and following the earlier assimilation of the Celtic mail shirt).

These were the Coolus type with a round cap of bronze and small neck guard (which disappeared in the middle of the 1^st century AD), and iron Port type with a deep neck guard, the latter named after the site type location of Port bei Nidau in Switzerland. This latter developed into the classic ‘Imperial’ Gallic helmet often associated with the Roman legionary of the 1^st and 2^nd centuries AD, featuring an even larger neck guard.

A final ‘Imperial’ type was that originating in Italy, hence it being called Italic, a bronze compromise between the new designs of Celtic origin and the more traditional Roman types. All of these helmets featured prominent cheek guards (again of Gallic provenance) and often a reinforcing strip on the front of the cap to deflect downward sword slashes. Ear guards had been added by the AD 50s.

In terms of armour, the late Republic and early Principate legionaries continued to wear the ubiquitous lorica hamata chain mail short. However, from 9 BC a major change began to take place which was to see the emergence into popular legionary use of the armour most associated in the public mind with the Roman legionary.  This was the famous lorica segmentata banded iron cuirass, constructed of articulated iron plates and hoops.

Lorica Segmentata

Such armour appears, unusually, to have been a purely Roman innovation with no cultural influence from opponents or allies. With time, this complicated though highly effective armour was simplified for ease of use by the legionary. One example found at the principia (headquarters building) at the vexillation fortress of Newsteads (Roman Trimontium) in 1905 for instance features simple rivets to replace earlier bronze hinges, a single large girdle plate replacing the two previous ones and strong hooks replacing earlier and more complicated belt-buckle fastenings.

Performance of Roman soldiers parading down the street at Easter, in Calahorra, Spain, 2013.

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Simplification of this armour continued through to its demise in the later 3^rd century AD. The lorica hamata continued to be used alongside it, as did the lorica squamata scale mail shirt. The latter was cheaper than chainmail but inferior in flexibility and protection. Additionally, when fighting certain types of opponent (such as Dacians using the two handed falx slashing weapon) extra armour was fitted including articulated iron manicae arm guards, thigh guards and greaves.

Specific troop types within the legions were also often differentially equipped with armour when compared to the rank and file legionaries to mark them apart, with officers frequently shown wearing iron and bronze muscled cuirasses.

The defensive panoply of the Marian and Augustan legionary was completed with their shield, still the scutum though as time progressed this became squarer in design. In defence this allowed the legionaries to adopt a number of defensive formations, including the testudo. This featured interlocking shields providing full cover on all sides, including from above.

Such traditional legionary equipment remained in use throughout much of the Principate. By the late 2^nd/ early 3^rd centuries AD however, this was beginning to change.

Later reforms to the legionary

This was largely a response to a change in the nature of their opponents.  Previously, the legions had most often faced a similar infantry-heavy force (excepting the Parthians in the east), but were now tackling a multitude of threats, many of a differing nature which required a more flexible response. This change is shown in real time on three of the monuments set up in Rome by three great warrior Emperors – the Column of Marcus Aurelius and the Arches of Septimius Severus and Constantine, with weapons considered first to provide context.

From the reign of Septimius Severus a great change began with the sword, the longer cavalry-style spatha beginning to replace the shorter gladius for all Roman foot soldiers. This was up to 80cm in length, although some of one metre-length have been identified. It seems likely the adoption of this weapon had its origins in a need for more reach to tackle armoured mounted opponents. A similar change is also evident in the use of the pila, they gradually being replaced by a thrusting spear of between 2m and 2.7m in length in the same time period.

This change is visible actually taking place on the three monuments detailed above. Thus on the Column of Marcus Aurelius legionaries in classic lorica segmentata are mostly armed with pila, while on the Arches of Severus and Constantine they have been replaced by spears.

Roman shields in defence formation.

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This was again a response to the experiences in fighting mounted opponents more frequently, as with the longer sword. In this regard, Rome had long engaged with Parthian heavy shock cavalry and supporting horse archers in the east, but in the Marcommanic Wars under Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus they also found themselves fighting against the Iazyges Sarmatian tribe who had a much higher proportion of mounted shock troops.

A legionary spear wall would therefore have made much more sense engaging such opponents than the use of pilum impact weapons. This change is also evident in the defensive panoply. For example, as the Principate progressed, legionary helmets became increasingly substantial, with the Italic ‘Imperial’ type disappearing in the early 3^rd century AD.

Equipped to meet any challenge

By this time many legionaries were being equipped with heavier, single bowl designs reinforced by cross-pieces and fitted with deep napes, meaning only a minimal T-shaped face opening. These provided exceptional levels of protection, especially against mounted opponents.

Not surprisingly, a change is also evident in the body armour of the legionary as the Principate approached its end. Thus on the Column of Marcus Aurelius most are wearing lorica segmentata, while on the Arch of Septimius Severus there is a much higher proportion wearing lorica hamata chain mail, this proportion increasing yet again the Arch of Constantine. Finally, as the 2^nd century AD progressed the traditional scutum began being replaced by a large flat (and sometimes slightly dished) oval shield, confusingly still called a scutum.

This new design was of simple plank construction, with stitched-on rawhide, and was strengthened with iron bars. The two types appear to have been used side by side for some time, with examples of both found at the fortified frontier trading town of Dura-Europos in Syria dating to AD 256. This transition is also very evident on the three monuments detailed above, with many of the large round shields featuring on the Severan arch, and even more on the Arch of Constantine.

Once again this change seems associated with the type of opponent more commonly being faced, the round shield perhaps more suited to dealing with a mounted threat. It certainly gave greater freedom of movement for the new swords and spears coming into use with their greater reach, and would also have been cheaper to produce.

To conclude, the defensive equipment of the legionary evolved over the centuries, reacting to the nature of each new threat faced and the Romans adopting military technology when it suited a need. Such flexibility in terms of the legionary’s defensive (and indeed offensive) panoply ensured that the legions were always best equipped to meet any future challenge.

The story of how this panoply came to be is centuries long and reflects both the opponents that the legionary fought, and the great Roman ability to assimilate the ideas and technology of others. This article covers the early evolution of Roman armour, between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC.

The reforms of Servius Tullius

The earliest Roman military system dates to the reforms of Servius Tullius, the second Etrusco-Roman king who reigned from 579 BC to 535 BC. The state he ruled was dominated by the Etruscan culture to the north which, by the early 7^th century BC, had spread its influence to the settlements above the eastern bank of the Tiber, including Rome.

Through their seafaring skills the Etruscans had earlier come into contact with the Greek colonies in southern Italy and eastern Sicily, and from this adopted the Greek hoplite phalanx as the principle fighting formation for their better-armed troops. Thus when Tullius carried out his reforms of the Etrusco-Roman army, with its wealth-based citizen-levy featuring four classes of line-of-battle troops, the elite First Class were equipped and fought as traditional hoplites.

Depiction of hoplites confronting a Persian horseman.

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Their protective equipment featured Italicised-variants of the popular hoplite helmets of their day, for body armour either a bronze bell cuirass or perhaps the Etruscan round cuirass, and the bronze-faced heavy wooden aspis body shield. Rome became a Republic with the overthrow of Tarquin the Proud in 509 BC, though still maintained the Tullian military system with its core of hoplites.

This continued until the advent of the next reformer of the Roman military system, Marcus Furius Camillus.

The reforms of Camillus

In 401 BC Camillus was appointed consular tribune and given command over the military to bring about the end of the long siege of the rival Etrurian city of Veii, which he successfully did in 396 BC. However his reforms were actually prompted by the Latin defeat by the Senones Gauls at the Battle of Allia in 390 BC, and the subsequent traumatic sack of Rome.

His response was to abandon the phalanx and all other classes of Tullian line-of-battle troops. They were replaced for the first time by the manipular legion.

The manipular legion

Initially these were two in number, each commanded by a consul with six tribuni militum acting as subordinates. The early manipular legion numbered 3,000 infantry each, though this quickly increased with time, ultimately to over 6,000. Within this legion there were three classes of line-of-battle troops, all termed for the first time legionaries. Based on experience and age rather than the equipment they could afford, these were:

• triarii, veterans wearing helmets and body armour, carrying the scutum shield (see below), hasta thrusting spear and sword. These replaced, in part, the old Tullian First Class hoplites.
• principes, older warriors also in helmet and body armour, carrying the scutum, pila heavy throwing javelin and sword. The pila (of Spanish origin) were used to deliver a devastating volley immediately prior to impact with the opposing battle line. These also replaced, in part, the old Tullian First Class hoplites.
• hastati, ‘the flower of young men’, with helmet and lesser body armour, carrying the scutum, pila heavy throwing javelin and sword. These replaced the old Tullian Second class.

It is unclear how quickly the pilum replaced the spear of the old First and Second classes for the principes and hastati, though it was the latter who converted first.

Camillian armour

Legionary helmets were worn by all line-of-battle troops no matter their status in the Camillan manipular system. Made from bronze, they fitted the cranium and provided good overall protection. Designs called Etrusco-Corinthian, Attic and Montefortino were the most common, especially later in this phase of legionary evolution. It was usual for such helmets to feature three purple or black feathers standing up to 50cm in height.

For body armour all legionaries wore a square bronze 223mm pectoral covering the heart and upper chest. This was held in place with leather straps. Older Italic single and triple disc shaped pectorals were also still in use at this time. Those who could afford it, usually triarii and principes, replaced the primitive pectorals with lorica hamata chain mail shirts as time went on. Such armour, while offering greatly improved protection, was very heavy at around 15kg.

Historical reenactor in Roman centurion costume

Image Credit: User Lviatour on Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

This covered the torso from the shoulder to the hips, was of Gallic origin (showing the Romans assimilating superior enemy military technology) and was made from interlinked iron rings 1mm thick and up to 9mm in external diameter. Up to 20,000 were needed for each shirt, making its manufacture very labour intensive and expensive.

If the legionary could afford it this defensive panoply was completed with an iron or bronze greave on the leading left lower leg – both legs for the very well off.

The Camillan scutum shield was a large rectangular curved body shield up to 120cm in length and 75cm in width, possibly of Samnite origin. Made from planed wooden strips laminated together in three layers, it was very sturdy. An umbones iron boss was attached to the centre where the shield was slightly thicker. It was completed with a calf-skin and felt facing.

The scutum weighed up to 10kg and was held by a horizontal grip using a straightened arm. Crucially, rather than just being used for protection, it was also used as an offensive weapon in its own right, for example being smashed into an opponent to push them over.

Gallic influence

A key factor here in the switch from Tullian First Class phalanx to the manipular legionary (and the clearly associated change in the defensive equipment, particularly the shield) was the height of the Gallic warriors faced at Allia and later by the legions of Rome, and their fighting technique.

Taller than their Latin counterparts, they fought with long iron swords using a downward slashing technique. This rendered the hoplite’s aspis, designed to defend the user and his neighbours from frontal attack, less practical. Another change at this time was in formation density. The triarii, principes, and hastati all formed up in a looser formation than the phalanx. This allowed free use of the sword and scutum, though the triarii could be deployed in closer formation if a hedge of spears was required.

Polybian reforms

After Rome’s conflict with Pyrrhus in the early 3^rd century BC, the Camillan manipular legion further evolved into one dubbed the Polybian system. This again included the triarii, principes, and hastati, with the major change being the replacement of the leves skirmishers who supported the legionaries with velites who were better equipped for the role.

The fourth and fifth classes of the Camillan system, called rorarii and accensi whose role supporting the legionaries is unclear, also disappear from this point. In terms of the defensive panoply the major change here would have been the increasing use of lorica hamata chain mail shirts, particularly by the triarii and principes.